This booklet discusses the Roman Empire which has served throughout history as a model of political organization and control. The creation of the Roman Empire transformed Roman government, society, culture, and economy.
1. Page 1 of 6 2 The Roman Empire MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES EMPIRE BUILDING The The Roman Empire has served • civil war • triumvirate creation of the Roman Empire throughout history as a model • Julius • Augustus transformed Roman govern- of political organization and Caesar • Pax Romana ment, society, economy, and control. culture. SETTING THE STAGE As Rome enlarged its territory, its republican form of government grew increasingly unstable. Eventually, the Roman Republic gave way to the formation of a mighty dictator-ruled empire that continued to spread Rome’s influence far and wide. TAKING NOTES The Republic Collapses Clarifying Make a bulleted chart showing Rome’s increasing wealth and expanding boundaries brought many problems. how Rome changed as The most serious were growing discontent among the lower classes of society it became an empire. and a breakdown in military order. These problems led to a shakeup of the republic—and the emergence of a new political system. Changes in Rome Economic Turmoil As Rome grew, the gap between rich and poor grew wider. . Dictator claims Many of Rome’s rich landowners lived on huge estates. Thousands of enslaved .. sole power persons—many of whom had been captured peoples in various wars—were forced to work on these estates. By 100 B.C., enslaved persons formed perhaps one-third of Rome’s population. Small farmers found it difficult to compete with the large estates run by the labor of enslaved people. Many of these farmers were former soldiers. A large number of them sold their lands to wealthy landowners and became homeless and jobless. Most stayed in the countryside and worked as seasonal migrant laborers. Some headed to Rome and other cities looking for work. They joined the ranks of the urban poor, a group that totaled about one-fourth of Roman society. Two brothers, Tiberius and Gaius (GUY•us) Gracchus (GRAK•us), attempted to help Rome’s poor. As tribunes, they proposed such reforms as limiting the size of estates and giving land to the poor. Tiberius spoke eloquently about the plight of the landless former soldiers: PRIMARY SOURCE The savage beasts have their . . . dens, . . . but the men who bear arms and expose their lives for the safety of their country, enjoy . . . nothing more in it but the air and light . . . and wander from place to place with their wives and children. TIBERIUS GRACCHUS quoted in Plutarch, The Lives of Noble Greeks and Romans The brothers made enemies of numerous senators, who felt threatened by their ideas. Both met violent deaths—Tiberius in 133 B.C. and Gaius in 121 B.C. 160 Chapter 6
2. Page 2 of 6 A period of civil war, or conflict between groups within the same country, followed their deaths. Military Upheaval Adding to the growing turmoil within the republic was a breakdown of the once-loyal military. As the republic grew more unstable, gener- als began seizing greater power for themselves. They recruited soldiers from the landless poor by promising them land. These soldiers fought for pay and owed alle- giance only to their commander. They replaced the citizen-soldiers whose loyalty had been to the republic. It now was possible for a military leader supported by his own troops to take over by force. Eventually, one would do just that. Julius Caesar Takes Control In 60 B.C., a military leader named Julius Caesar joined forces with Crassus, a wealthy Roman, and Pompey, a popular general. With their help, Caesar was elected consul in 59 B.C. For the next ten years, these men dominated Rome as a triumvirate, a group of three rulers. Caesar was a strong leader and a genius at military strategy. Following tradition, he served only one year as consul. He then appointed himself governor of Gaul (now France). During 58–50 B.C., Caesar led his legions in a grueling but successful campaign to conquer all of Gaul. Because he shared fully in the hardships of war, he won his men’s loyalty and devotion. Julius Caesar The reports of Caesar’s successes in Gaul made him very 100–44 B.C. popular with the people of Rome. Pompey, who had become In 44 B.C., on March 15, Caesar his political rival, feared Caesar’s ambitions. In 50 B.C., the prepared to go to speak to the senate, at Pompey’s urgings, ordered Caesar to disband his Senate, unaware that important legions and return home. senators plotted his death. According Caesar defied the senate’s order. On the night of January to legend, his wife, Calpurnia, begged 10, 49 B.C., he took his army across the Rubicon River in him not to go. She said she had seen him in a dream dying in her arms of Italy, the southern limit of the area he commanded. He stab wounds. marched his army swiftly toward Rome, and Pompey fled. When Caesar arrived at the Senate Caesar’s troops defeated Pompey’s armies in Greece, Asia, chamber, he sat in his chair. Soon the Spain, and Egypt. In 46 B.C., Caesar returned to Rome, plotters encircled him, took knives where he had the support of the army and the masses. That hidden in their togas, and stabbed him same year, the senate appointed him dictator. In 44 B.C., he 23 times, as depicted in the painting below. They were led by Gaius Cassius was named dictator for life. and Caesar’s friend Marcus Brutus. Caesar’s Reforms Caesar governed as an absolute ruler, Caesar’s last words were “Et tu, one who has total power. However, he started a number of Brute?” (“You, too, Brutus?”) reforms. He granted Roman citizenship to many people in the provinces. He expanded the senate, adding friends and RESEARCH LINKS For more on Julius supporters from Italy and other regions. Caesar also helped Caesar, go to classzone.com 161
3. Page 3 of 6 the poor by creating jobs, especially through the construction of new public build- ings. He started colonies where people without land could own property, and he increased pay for soldiers. Many nobles and senators expressed concern over Caesar’s growing power, suc- cess, and popularity. Some feared losing their influence. Others considered him a tyrant. A number of important senators, led by Marcus Brutus and Gaius Cassius, Analyzing plotted his assassination. On March 15, 44 B.C., they stabbed him to death in the Motives senate chamber. Why did Caesar’s rivals feel Beginning of the Empire After Caesar’s death, civil war broke out again and they had to kill him? destroyed what was left of the Roman Republic. Three of Caesar’s supporters banded together to crush the assassins. Caesar’s 18-year-old grandnephew and adopted son Octavian (ahk•TAY•vee•uhn) joined with an experienced general named Mark Antony and a powerful politician named Lepidus. In 43 B.C., they took control of Rome and ruled for ten years as the Second Triumvirate. Their alliance, however, ended in jealousy and violence. Octavian forced Lepidus to retire. He and Mark Antony then became rivals. While leading troops against Rome’s enemies in Anatolia, Mark Antony met Queen Cleopatra of Egypt. He fell in love with her and followed her to Egypt. Octavian accused Antony of plotting to rule Rome from Egypt, and another civil war erupted. Octavian defeated the combined forces of Antony and Cleopatra at the naval battle of Actium in 31 B.C. Later, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. While he restored some aspects of the republic, Octavian became the unchallenged ruler of Rome. Eventually he accepted the title of Augustus (aw•GUHS•tuhs), or “exalted one.” He also kept the title imperator, or “supreme military commander,” a term from which emperor is derived. Rome was now an empire ruled by one man. A Vast and Powerful Empire Rome was at the peak of its power from the beginning of Augustus’s rule in 27 B.C. to A.D. 180. For 207 years, peace reigned throughout the empire, except for some fighting Augustus with tribes along the borders. This period of peace and pros- Summarizing 63 B.C.–A.D. 14 perity is known as the Pax Romana— “Roman peace.” To what does Augustus was the most powerful the term Pax During this time, the Roman Empire included more than ruler of the mightiest empire of the Romana refer? ancient world. Yet, amid the pomp of 3 million square miles. Its population numbered between 60 Rome, he lived a simple and frugal and 80 million people. About 1 million people lived in the life. His home was modest by Roman city of Rome itself. standards. His favorite meal consisted A Sound Government The Romans held their vast empire of coarse bread, a few sardines, and a piece of cheese—the usual food of together in part through efficient government and able a common laborer. rulers. Augustus was Rome’s ablest emperor. He stabilized Augustus was also a very religious the frontier, glorified Rome with splendid public buildings, and family-oriented man. He held to and created a system of government that survived for cen- Vocabulary a strict moral code. He had his only turies. He set up a civil service. That is, he paid workers to The term civil child, Julia, exiled from Rome for not service refers to manage the affairs of government, such as the grain supply, being faithful in her marriage. persons employed tax collection, and the postal system. Although the senate in the civil adminis- still functioned, civil servants drawn from plebeians and tration of govern- RESEARCH LINKS For more on even former slaves actually administered the empire. ment. Augustus, go to classzone.com After Augustus died in A.D. 14, the system of government that he established maintained the empire’s stability. This 162 Chapter 6
4. Page 4 of 6 Trade in the Roman Empire, A.D. 200 Trade Goods BRITAIN Grain Olive oil Slaves Wine Londinium Metals Textiles Wild animals ATLANTIC GAUL EUROPE L o ire R . Roman Empire, A.D. 200 OCEAN S A LP Aquileia DACIA Danub CAU Ad eR CAS Massalia r i a Salonae . US PY RE Narbo ITALY tic Black Sea MO Ca N UN EE Rome Se TA spi S I a NS an Tarraco Byzantium SPAIN Sea GREECE ANATOLIA Ephesus Corinth Gades Carthage Me Antioch dit NS erra N TA I nean Damascus MOU Sea LAS Z AG AT Caesarea Jerusalem Ctesiphon RO AFRICA SM Alexandria OU EGYPT TA N Nile R. ARABIA IN 0 500 Miles S 0 1,000 Kilometers 40°E 0° GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps Tropic of Cancer 1. Movement From what three continents did trade goods come to Rome? 2. Location Which goods were supplied by all three areas? was due mainly to the effectiveness of the civil service in carrying out day-to-day operations. The Romans managed to control an empire that by the second century A.D. reached from Spain to Mesopotamia, from North Africa to Britain. Included in its provinces were people of many languages, cultures, and customs. Agriculture and Trade Agriculture was the most important industry in the empire. All else depended on it. About 90 percent of the people were engaged in farming. Most Romans survived on the produce from their local area. Additional food (when needed) and luxury items for the rich were obtained through trade. In Augustus’s time, a silver coin called a denarius was in use throughout the empire. Having common coinage made trade between different parts of the empire much easier. Rome had a vast trading network. Ships from the east traveled the Mediterranean protected by the Roman navy. Cities such as Corinth in Greece, Ephesus in Anatolia, and Antioch on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean grew wealthy. Rome also traded with China and India. A complex network of roads linked the empire to such far-flung places as Persia and southern Russia. These roads were originally built by the Roman army for mil- itary purposes. Trade also brought Roman ways to the provinces and beyond. The Roman World Throughout its history, Rome emphasized the values of discipline, strength, and loyalty. A person with these qualities was said to have the important virtue of grav- itas. The Romans were a practical people. They honored strength more than beauty, power more than grace, and usefulness more than elegance. Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 163
5. Page 5 of 6 Roman Emperors, A.D. 37–A.D. 180 Bad Emperors Good Emperors Caligula Nero Domitian Nerva Hadrian Marcus Aurelias • 37–41 • 54–68 • 81–96 • 96–98 • 117–138 • 161–180 • Mentally • Good admin- • Ruled • Began custom • Consolidated • Brought empire disturbed istrator but dictatorially of adopting heir earlier conquests to height of vicious • Feared treason Trajan • Reorganized the economic • Murdered many everywhere and • 98–117 bureaucracy prosperity • Persecuted executed many • Empire reached • Defeated Antoninus Pius Christians its greatest extent invaders • 138–161 • Undertook vast • Wrote philosophy • Reign largely a building program period of peace • Enlarged social and prosperity welfare Most people in the Roman Empire lived in the countryside and worked on farms. In Rome and smaller cities, merchants, soldiers, slaves, foreigners, and philosophers all shared the crowded, noisy streets. Here, people from all walks of life came together to create a diverse society. Slaves and Captivity Slavery was a significant part of Roman life. It was widespread Caligula and important to the economy. The Romans made more use of slaves than any previ- Trajan ous civilization. Numbers of slaves may have reached as high as one-third of the pop- ulation. Most slaves were conquered peoples brought back by victorious Roman armies and included men, women, and children. Children born to slaves also became slaves. Slaves could be bought and sold. According to Roman law, slaves were the property of their owner. They could be punished, rewarded, set free, or put to death as their master saw fit. Slaves worked both in the city and on the farm. Many were treated cruelly and worked at hard labor all day long. Some—strong, healthy males—were forced to become gladiators, or professional fighters, who fought to the death in public contests. Other slaves, particularly those who worked in wealthy households, were better treated. Occasionally, slaves would rebel. None of the slave revolts succeeded. More than a million slaves lost their lives attempting to gain their freedom. Gods and Goddesses The earliest Romans worshiped powerful spirits or divine forces, called numina, that they thought resided in everything around them. Closely related to these spirits were the Lares (LAIR-eez), who were the guardian spirits of each family. They gave names to these powerful gods and goddesses and honored them through various rituals, hoping to gain favor and avoid misfortune. In Rome, government and religion were linked. The deities were symbols of the state. Romans were expected to honor them not only in private rituals at shrines in their homes but also in public worship ceremonies conducted by priests in temples. Among the most important Roman gods and goddesses were Jupiter, father of the gods; Juno, his wife, who supposedly watched over women; and Minerva, goddess of wisdom and of the arts and crafts. During the empire, worship of the emperor also became part of the official religion of Rome. Society and Culture By the time of the empire, wealth and social status made huge differences in how people lived. Classes had little in common. The rich lived extravagantly. They spent large sums of money on homes, gardens, slaves, and lux- uries. They gave banquets that lasted for many hours and included foods that were rare and costly, such as boiled ostrich and parrot-tongue pie. However, most people in Rome barely had the necessities of life. During the time of the empire, much of the city’s population was unemployed. The govern- ment supported these people with daily rations of grain. In the shadow of Rome’s 164 Chapter 6
6. Page 6 of 6 Gladiator Games Thumbs up or thumbs down—that is how a match often ended for a gladiator (shown in this mosaic battling a tiger). When one of the combatants fell, the organizer of the games usually determined his fate. A thumbs up sign from him meant that the fighter would live. Thumbs down meant his death. The crowd usually played a key role in these life-and-death decisions. If the masses liked the fallen gladiator, he most likely would live to fight another day. If not, he was doomed. great temples and public buildings, poor people crowded into rickety, sprawling tenements. Fire was a constant danger. To distract and control the masses of Romans, the government provided free games, races, mock battles, and gladiator contests. By A.D. 250, there were 150 hol- idays a year. On these days of celebration, the Colosseum, a huge arena that could hold 50,000, would fill with the rich and the poor alike. The spectacles they watched combined bravery and cruelty, honor and violence. In the animal shows, wild crea- tures brought from distant lands, such as tigers, lions, and bears, fought to the death. In other contests, gladiators engaged in combat with animals or with each other, often until one of them was killed. During this time of Pax Romana, another activity slowly emerged in the Roman Empire—the practice of a new religion known as Christianity. The early followers of this new faith would meet with much brutality and hardship for their beliefs. But their religion would endure and spread throughout the empire, and eventually become one of the dominant faiths of the world. SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • civil war • Julius Caesar • triumvirate • Augustus • Pax Romana USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. What changes do you 3. What factors contributed to the 6. ANALYZING CAUSES What role did Julius Caesar play in consider negative? Why? fall of the Roman Republic? the decline of the republic and the rise of the empire? 4. What were the main reasons 7. ANALYZING ISSUES What aspects of Roman society for the Romans’ success in remained similar from republic to empire? Changes in Rome controlling such a large 8. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS What was Augustus’s greatest . Dictator claims empire? contribution to Roman society? Why? .. sole power 5. What measures did the government take to distract 9. WRITING ACTIVITY EMPIRE BUILDING Write a brief dialogue in which various members of society comment and control the masses of on conditions in the Roman Empire during the Pax Rome? Romana. Participants might include a senator, a civil servant, a slave, a merchant, and a former soldier. CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A POSTER Create a poster depicting the sporting events and other forms of entertainment that you enjoy watching. Include an introductory paragraph that explains what about them appeals to you. Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 165
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