Quick Solutions to Common Errors in English

Contributed by:
Steve
This reference book has been written for the student and the general reader. It aims to tackle the basic questions about spelling, punctuation, grammar, and word usage that the student and the general reader are likely to ask. Throughout the book, there are clear explanations and exemplar sentences where they are needed.
1.
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3. Quick Solutions to
in
4. If you want to know how...
Improve Your Punctuation & Grammar
Master the basics of the English language and
write with greater confidence
Improve Your Written English
Master the essentials of grammar, punctuation and
spelling and write with greater confidence
Writing an Essay
How to improve your performance in coursework
and examinations
Write with Confidence
Solutions and examples
for everyday writing needs
The Handbook of English
Punctuation, common practice and usage
For full details, please send for a free copy
of the latest catalogue to:
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Oxford OX5 1RX, United Kingdom
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5. Quick Solutions to
in
Angela Burt An A-Zguide
to spelling
punctuation
and grammar
howtobooks
6. Published by How To Content,
A division of How To Books Ltd,
Spring Hill House, Spring Hill Road,
Begbroke, Oxford 0X5 1RX. United Kingdom.
Tel: (01865) 375794. Fax: (01865) 379162.
email: info@howtobooks.co.uk
http://www.howtobooks.co.uk
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or stored in an
information retrieval system (other than for purposes of review) without the express
permission of the publisher in writing.
The right of Angela Burt to be identified as the author of this work has been
asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
© Copyright 2004 Angela Burt
First published in paperback 2004
First published in electronic form 2007
ISBN: 978 1 84803 091 6
Cover design by Baseline Arts Ltd, Oxford, UK
Produced for How To Books by Deer Park Productions, Tavistock, Devon, UK
Typeset by PDQ Typesetting, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffs, UK
NOTE: The material contained in this book is set out in good faith for general
guidance and no liability can be accepted for loss or expense incurred as a result of
relying in particular circumstances on statements made in the book. The laws and
regulations are complex and liable to change, and readers should check the current
position with the relevant authorities before making personal arrangements.
7. Introduction
Quick Solutions to Common Errors in English is a
reference book which has been written for the student
and the general reader. It aims to tackle the basic
questions about spelling, punctuation, grammar and
word usage that the student and the general reader are
likely to ask.
Throughout the book there are clear explanations, and
exemplar sentences where they are needed. When it's
helpful to draw attention to spelling rules and patterns,
these are given so that the reader is further empowered
to deal with hundreds of related words. The aim always
has been to make the reader more confident and
increasingly self-reliant.
This is a fast-track reference book. It is not a
dictionary although, like a dictionary, it is arranged
alphabetically. It concentrates on problem areas; it
anticipates difficulties; it invites cross-references. By
exploring punctuation, for example, and paragraphing, it
goes far beyond a dictionary's terms of reference. It is
not intended to replace a dictionary; it rather
supplements it.
Once, in an evening class, one of my adult students
said, 'If there's a right way to spell a word, I want to
know it.' On another occasion, at the end of a
punctuation session on possessive apostrophes, a college
student said rather angrily, 'Why wasn't I told this years
This book has been written to answer all the
questions that my students over the years have needed
to ask. I hope all who now use it will have their
questions answered also and enjoy the confidence and
the mastery that this will bring.
Angela Burt
v
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9. How to use this book
For ease of reference, all the entries in this book have
been listed alphabetically rather than being divided into
separate spelling, usage, punctuation and grammar
You will therefore find hypocrisy following
hyphens; paragraphing following paraffin; who or
whom? following whiskey or whisky?; and so on.
Want to check a spelling?
Cross-referencing will help you locate words with tricky
initial letters.
aquaint Wrong spelling. See ACQUAINT.
Plural words are given alongside singular nouns, with
cross-referencing to relevant rules and patterns.
knife (singular) knives (plural). See PLURALS (v).
There is also a general section on plurals and another
on foreign plurals.
If it's the complication of adding an ending that is
causing you trouble, you will find some words listed
with a useful cross-reference.
dining or dinning?
dine + ing = dining (as in dining room)
din + ing = dinning (noise dinning in ears)
See ADDING ENDINGS (i) and (ii).
vii
10. How to use this book
There are individual entries for confusing endings like
-able/-ible; -ance,-ant/-ence,-ent; -cal/-cle; -ise or
-ize? and for confusing beginnings like ante-/anti-; for-/
fore-; hyper-/hypo-; inter-/intra- and many others.
If you're hesitating between two words in a tricky pair
(like contagious or infectious?; disinterested or
uninterested?; imply or infer?; irony or sarcasm?),
turn to whichever word is listed first alphabetically.
There you will find a full explanation of the difference
in meaning and usage. There will be a cross-reference
from the word listed second alphabetically.
misplace See DISPLACE OR MISPLACE?.
The functions of the different punctuation marks are
discussed under individual entries; apostrophes (');
brackets (round and square); capital letters; colons (:);
dashes (-); exclamation marks (!); full stops (.);
hyphens (-); inverted commas/quotation marks/
speech marks (single '' and double " "); semicolons (;);
and question marks (?).
Additional entries include commands; contractions;
end stops; and indirect/reported speech.
As well as the general entry, contractions,
commonly used contractions are listed individually as
the punctuation of these causes so much confusion.
isn't
Place the apostrophe carefully. (not is'nt)
viii
11. How to use this book
Many grammatical queries can be listed individually or
as a choice between two or three possibilities. Among
these are: as or like?; consist in or consist of?;
different from/to/than; due to or owing to?; fewer
or less?; I/me/myself; lay or lie?; passed or past?;
shall or will?; should or would?; who or whom?.
between you and I
Incorrect.
Write: between you and me.
See PREPOSITIONS.
theirselves
Incorrect formation.
See THEMSELVES.
At other times, however, some grammatical points have
necessarily to be grouped under general technical
headings which sound rather forbidding. (The entries
themselves, I hope, will make all clear!)
These entries are too long to be quoted here. I
suggest that you look them up to see whether they deal
with areas that cause you problems:
comparative and superlative
double negatives
nouns
paragraphing
participles
possessive pronouns
prepositions
sequence of tenses
split infinitives
subjunctive
ix
12. How to use this book
As well as using this book as a reference text (its
unwritten subtitle is A Friend at Your Elbow!), I hope
you will sometimes be tempted to browse and to follow
up cross-references. Our language is a fascinating one
and well repays careful attention.
There will come a time when you no longer need the
guidance this reference book offers. That will be real
At the end of the book there are three appendices for
further reference:
Appendix A: Literary terms
Appendix B: Parts of speech
Appendix C: Planning, drafting and proofreading
X
13. ^K^H
abandoned, abandoning, abandonment (not -bb-)
(not -bb-)
abbreviated, abbreviating, abbreviation (not -b-)
See CONTRACTIONS.
Adjectives ending in -able or -ible can be difficult to
spell because both endings sound identical. You'll
always need to be on guard with these words and
check each word individually when you are in
doubt, but here are some useful guidelines:
(i) Generally use -able when the companion word
ends in -ation:
abominable, abomination
irritable, irritation
(ii) Generally use -ible when the companion word
ends in -ion:
comprehensible, comprehension
digestible, digestion
(iii) Use -able after hard c and hard g:
practicable (c sounds like k)
navigable (hard g)
(iv) Use -ible after soft c and soft g:
forcible (c sounds like s)
legible (g sounds like j)
See also ADDING ENDINGS (n); SOFT c AND SOFT G.
1
14. Both spellings are correct. Use either but be
consistent within one piece of writing.
This is a favourite word in spelling quizzes.
(not absess or abcess)
absent (not absc-)
absolutely (not absoloute, absoloutely)
absorption. Notice how b changes to p here.
abstract nouns
See NOUNS.
accept or except?
We ACCEPT your apology.
Everybody was there EXCEPT Stephen.
accessary or accessory?
If you want to preserve the traditional distinction in
meaning between these two words, use ACCESSARY
to refer to someone associated with a crime and
ACCESSORY to refer to something that is added (a
fashion accessory or car accessories). However, the
distinction has now become blurred and it is
perfectly acceptable to use one spelling to cover both
meanings. Of the two, accessory is the more widely
used, but both are correct.
(not -able)
The adverb is formed by adding -ly to accidental.
(not accidently)
2
15. ADAPTER OR ADAPTOR?
This is a favourite word in spelling quizzes and is
frequently seen misspelt on painted signs.
(not accomodation or accommadation)
Wrong spelling. See ACROSS.
(not -mm-)
achieved, achieving, achievement (not -ei-) See also
ADDING ENDINGS (ii.); El/IE SPELLING RULE.
Both spellings are correct but be consistent within
one piece of writing.
acquainted (not aq-)
(not -ence)
acquiesced, acquiescing (not aq-)
(not -ance)
acquired, acquiring, acquisition (not aq-)
Note that there are three syllables here, (not acrage)
(not accross)
adapter or adaptor?
Traditional usage would distinguish between these
two words and reserve -er for the person (an adapter
3
16. of novels, for instance) and -or for the piece of
electrical equipment. However, the distinction has
become very blurred and the two spellings are
considered by many authorities to be
interchangeable. Use either for both meanings but be
consistent within a single piece of writing.
addendum (singular) addenda (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
adding endings
Usually endings (suffixes) can be added to base words
without any complications. You just add them and
that is that!
e.g. iron + ing = ironing
steam + er = steamer
list + less = listless
However, there are four groups of words which
need especial care. Fortunately, there are some
straightforward rules which save your learning
thousands of words individually.
(i) The 1-1-1 rule
This rule applies to:
words of ONE syllable
ending with ONE consonant
preceded by ONE vowel,
e.g. drop, flat, sun, win
When you add an ending beginning with a
consonant to a 1-1-1 word, there is no change to
the base word:
drop + let = droplet
flat + ly = flatly
win + some = winsome
See CONSONANTS.
When you add an ending beginning with a
vowel to a 1-1-1 word, you double the final letter
of the base word:
4
17. ADDING ENDINGS
drop + ed = dropped
flat + est = flattest
win + ing = winning
sun + *y = sunny
*y counts as a vowel when it sounds like i or e.
See VOWELS.
Treat qu as one letter:
quit + ing = quitting
quip + ed = quipped
Don't double final w and x. They would look
very odd and so we have correctly:
tax + ing = taxing
paw + ed = pawed
(ii) The magic -e rule
This rule applies to all words ending with a
silent -e.
e.g. hope, care, achieve, sincere, separate
When you add an ending beginning with a
consonant, keep the -e:
hope + ful = hopeful
care + less = careless
sincere + ly = sincerely
separate + ly = separately
achieve + ment = achievement
When you add an ending beginning with a
vowel, drop the -e:
hope + ing = hoping
care + er = carer
sincere + ity = sincerity
separate + ion = separation
achieve + ed = achieved
Do, however, keep the -e in words like singeing
(different from singing) and dyeing (different
5
18. ADDING ENDINGS
from dying) and whenever you need to keep the
identity of the base word clear (e.g. shoeing,
canoeing).
Do remember to keep the -e with soft c and
soft g words. It's the e that keeps them soft
(courageous, traceable). (See SOFT c AND SOFT G.)
Don't keep the -e with these eight exceptions
to the rule: truly, duly, ninth, argument, wholly,
awful, whilst, wisdom.
(iii) -y rule
This rule applies to all words ending in -y. Look
at the letter before the -y in the base word.
It doesn't matter at all what kind of ending you
are adding. When you add an ending to a word
ending in a vowel + y, keep the y:
portray + ed = portrayed
employ + ment = employment
When you add an ending to a word ending in a
consonant + y, change the y to i:
try +al = trial
empty + er = emptier
pity + less = pitiless
lazy + ness = laziness
Do keep the y when adding -ing. Two i's
together would look very odd, despite our two
words ski-ing and taxi-ing.
try + ing = trying
empty + ing = emptying
Don't apply the rule in these fourteen cases:
daily, gaily, gaiety, laid, paid, said, slain,
babyhood, shyly, shyness, dryness, slyness,
wryly, wry ness.
6
19. ADDING ENDINGS
(iv) The 2-1-1 rule
This rule applies to:
words of TWO syllables
ending with ONE consonant
preceded by ONE vowel.
With this rule, it all depends on which syllable
of the word is stressed. The 2-1-1 words below
are stressed on the first syllable, and both vowel
and consonant endings are added without any
complications:
gossip gossiping
target targeted
limit limitless
eager eagerness
But note that kidnap, outfit, worship, always
double their final letter:
kidnapped, outfitter, worshipping
Take care with 2-1-1 words which are stressed
on the second syllable. There is no change when
you add a consonant ending:
forget + fill = forgetful
equip + ment = equipment
Double the final consonant of the base word
when you add a vowel ending:
forget + ing = forgetting
equip + ed = equipped
forbid + en = forbidden
begin + er = beginner
This rule is really valuable but you must be
aware of some exceptions:
2-1-1 words ending in -1 seem to have a rule all
of their own. Whether the stress is on the first
or the second syllable, there is no change when
7
20. a consonant ending is added:
quarrel + some = quarrelsome
instal + ment = instalment
Double the -1 when adding a vowel ending:
quarrel + ing = quarrelling
instal + ed = installed
excel + ent = excellent
^ Notice how the change of stress in these words
affects the spelling:
confer conferred conferring conference
defer deferred deferring deference
infer inferred inferring inference
prefer preferred preferring preference
refer referred referring reference
transfer transferred transferring transference
See also -ABLE/-IBLE; -ANCE,-ANT/-ENCE,-ENT; CAL/-CLE;
-FUL;-LY.
(not adr-)
adieu (singular) adieus or adieux (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
Both spellings are correct.
Wrong spelling. See ADDRESS.
advantage + ous
Keep the -e in this instance.
See SOFT c AND SOFT G.
adverse or averse?
These two words have different meanings.
8
21. AGEING OR AGING?
The ferries were cancelled owing to ADVERSE
weather conditions. (= unfavourable)
She is not AVERSE to publicity. (= opposed)
advertise + ment
See ADDING ENDINGS (ii).
advice or advise?
My ADVICE is to forget all about it. (noun =
recommendation)
What would you ADVISE me to do? (verb =
recommend)
adviser or advisor?
Adviser is the traditionally correct British spelling.
Advisor is more common in American English.
(not -ery)
Use the same spelling for the noun (a television
AERIAL) and the adjective (an AERIAL photograph).
affect or effect?
Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:
Heavy drinking will AFFECT your liver, (verb)
The EFFECT on her health was immediate, (noun)
The new manager plans to EFFECT sweeping
changes, (verb = to bring about)
(not affraid)
ageing or aging?
Both spellings are correct but many would prefer
ageing as it keeps the identity of the base word (age)
more easily recognised.
See ADDING ENDINGS (ii).
9
22. Strictly speaking, aggravate means to make worse.
His rudeness AGGRAVATED an already explosive
situation.
It is, however, widely used in the sense of to irritate
or to annoy. Be aware that some authorities would
regard this second usage as incorrect.
(not agr-)
agree to/agree with
The choice of preposition alters the meaning of the
verb:
I AGREED TO do what he advised.
I AGREED TO all the conditions.
I AGREED WITH all they said.
See PREPOSITIONS.
(not agreable)
For grammatical agreement, see SINGULAR OR PLURAL?.
Wrong spelling. See AGGRESSIVE.
alga (singular) algae (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
(not -dge)
alley or ally?
An ALLEY is a little lane.
An ALLY is a friend,
alley (singular), alleys (plural)
ally (singular), allies (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
10
23. ALL TOGETHER OR ALTOGETHER?
all most or almost?
There is a difference in meaning. Use these exemplar
sentences as a guide:
They were ALL (= everyone) MOST kind.
The child was ALMOST ( = nearly) asleep.
allowed or aloud?
There is a difference in meaning. Use these exemplar
sentences as a guide:
Are we ALLOWED (= permitted) to smoke in here?
I was just thinking ALOUD (= out loud).
all ready or already?
There is a difference in meaning. Use these exemplar
sentences as a guide:
We are ALL (= everyone) READY.
It is ALL (= everything) READY.
She was ALREADY dead (= by then).
all right or alright?
Traditional usage would consider ALL RIGHT to be
correct and ALRIGHT to be incorrect. However, the
use of 'alright' is so widespread that some would see it
as acceptable although the majority of educated users
would take care to avoid it.
all so or also?
There is a difference in meaning. Use these exemplar
sentences as a guide:
You are ALL (= everyone) SO kind.
You are ALSO (= in addition) generous.
all together or altogether?
There is a difference in meaning. Use these exemplar
sentences as a guide:
They were ALL (= everybody) huddled TOGETHER
for warmth.
11
24. ALLUDE OR ELUDE?
His situation is ALTOGETHER (= totally) different
from yours.
allude or elude?
There is a difference in meaning.
ALLUDE means to refer to indirectly.
ELUDE means to evade capture or recall.
allusion, delusion or illusion?
There is a difference in meaning.
An ALLUSION is an indirect reference.
A DELUSION is a false belief (often associated with
a mental disorder).
An ILLUSION is a deceptive appearance.
all ways or always?
There is a difference in meaning.
These three routes are ALL (= each of them) WAYS
into town.
She ALWAYS (= at all times) tells the truth.
See ALL MOST OR ALMOST?.
a lot
Write as two words, not as one. Bear in mind that
this construction is slang and not to be used in a
formal context.
See ALLOWED OR ALOUD?.
See ALL READY OR ALREADY?.
altar or alter?
There is a difference in meaning.
The bride and groom stood solemnly before the
ALTAR.
12
25. AMBIGUITY
Do you wish to ALTER (= change) the
arrangements?
alternate or alternative?
We visit our grandparents on ALTERNATE
Saturdays. (= every other Saturday)
I ALTERNATE between hope and despair. (= have
each mood in turn)
An ALTERNATIVE plan would be to go by boat.
(= another possibility)
The ALTERNATIVES are simple: work or go
hungry. (= two choices)
Strictly speaking, the choice can be between only
two alternatives (one choice or the other).
However, the word is frequently used more
loosely and this precise definition is becoming lost.
See ALL TOGETHER OR ALTOGETHER?.
Alzheimer's disease
(not Alze-)
(not -mm-)
Always try to anticipate any possible confusion on
the part of your reader. Check that you have made
your meaning absolutely clear.
(i) Bear in mind that pronouns can be very vague.
Consider this sentence:
My brother told his friend that HE had won first
prize in the local photographic exhibition.
Who is 'he', my brother or his friend?
Rewrite more clearly:
13
26. (a) My brother congratulated his friend on
winning first prize in the local photographic
exhibition.
(b) My brother, delighted to have won first prize
in the local photographic exhibition, told his
friend.
The other possibility is rather clumsy but is
otherwise clear:
(c) My brother told his friend that he (his friend)
had won first prize.
(d) My brother told his friend that he (my
brother) had won first prize.
(ii) Position the adverb ONLY with great care. It
will refer to the word nearest to it, usually the
word following. This may not be the meaning
you intended. See how crucial to the meaning
the position of 'only' can be:
ONLY Sean eats fish on Fridays.
(= No one else but Sean eats fish on Fridays.)
Sean ONLY eats fish on Fridays.
(= Sean does nothing else to the fish on Fridays
but eat it. He doesn't buy it, cook it, look at it,
smell it...)
Sean eats ONLY fish on Fridays.
(= Sean eats nothing but fish on Fridays.)
Sean eats fish ONLY on Fridays.
Sean eats fish on Fridays ONLY.
(= Sean eats fish on this one day in the week
and never on any other.)
(iii) Take care with the positioning of BADLY.
This room needs cleaning BADLY.
Does it? Or does it not need cleaning well?
Rewrite like this:
14
27. AMBIGUITY
This room BADLY needs cleaning.
(iv) Beware of causing initial bewilderment by not
introducing a comma to indicate a pause.
The shabby little riverside cafe was empty and
full of wasps and flies.
Empty and full?
The shabby little riverside cafe was empty, and
full of wasps and flies.
See COMMAS (ix).
(v) Avoid the danger of writing nonsense!
DRIVING slowly along the road, THE CASTLE
dominated the landscape.
The castle is driving?
Rewrite:
As we drove slowly along the road, we saw how
the castle dominated the landscape.
COOKED slowly, the FAMILY will enjoy the
cheaper cuts of meat.
Rewrite:
If the cheaper cuts of meat are cooked slowly,
the family will enjoy them.
See PARTICIPLES.
(vi) Make sure the descriptive details describe the
right noun!
For sale: 1995 Peugeot 205 - one owner with
power-assisted steering.
Rewrite:
For sale: 1995 Peugeot 205 with power-assisted
steering - one owner.
15
28. AMEND OR EMEND?
amend or emend?
Both words mean 'to make changes in order to
improve'. Use AMEND or EMEND when referring to
the correction of written or printed text.
Use AMEND in a wider context such as AMENDING
the law or AMENDING behaviour.
Wrong spelling. See AMOUNT.
(not amoung)
Either form can be used.
among or between?
Use BETWEEN when something is shared by two
people. Use AMONG when it is shared by three or
more.
Share the sweets BETWEEN the two of you.
Share the sweets AMONG yourselves.
However, BETWEEN is used with numbers larger
than two when it means an exact geographical
location or when it refers to relationships.
Sardinia lies BETWEEN Spain, Algeria, Corsica and
Italy.
It will take a long time before the rift BETWEEN
the five main parties heals.
amoral or immoral?
There is a difference in meaning.
AMORAL means not being governed by moral laws,
acting outside them,
(note -m-)
IMMORAL means breaking the moral laws,
(note -mm-)
16
29. -ANCE,-ANT/-ENCE,-ENT
Wrong spelling. See AMONG.
(not ammount)
amount or number?
AMOUNT is used with non-count nouns:
a small AMOUNT of sugar; a surprising AMOUNT of
gossip.
NUMBER is used with plural nouns: a NUMBER of
mistakes; a NUMBER of reasons.
(not -yze as in American English)
analysis (singular) analyses (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
Words with these endings are difficult to spell and
you'll always need to be on your guard with them.
Check each word individually when in doubt, but
here are some useful guidelines:
(i) People are generally -ant: attendant, lieutenant,
occupant, sergeant, tenant (but there are
exceptions like superintendent, president,
resident...).
(ii) Use -ance, -ant, where the companion word
ends in -ation: dominance, dominant,
domination; variance, variant, variation.
(iii) Use -ence, -ent after qu: consequence,
consequent; eloquence, eloquent.
(iv) Use -ance, -ant after hard c or hard g: significance,
significant (c sounds like k); elegance, elegant
(hard g).
17
30. (v) Use -ence, -ent after soft c or soft g: innocence,
innocent (c sounds like s); intelligent, intelligence
(g sounds like j).
See SOFT c AND SOFT G.
Many of us have been taught never to begin a
sentence with AND or BUT. Generally speaking this
is good advice. Both words are conjunctions and will
therefore be busy joining words within the sentence:
I should love to come AND I look forward to the party
very much.
They wanted to come BUT sadly they had to visit a
friend in hospital some miles away.
However, there are some occasions when you may
need the extra emphasis that starting a new sentence
with AND or BUT would give. If you have a good
reason to break the rules, do so!
anecdote or antidote?
An ANECDOTE is a short, amusing account of
something that has happened.
An ANTIDOTE is a medicine taken to counteract a
poison.
Wrong spelling. See ANXIETY.
Wrong spelling. See ANXIOUS.
annex or annexe?
To ANNEX is to take possession of a country or part
of a country.
An ANNEX is another word for an appendix in an
official document.
An ANNEXE is a building added to the main
building.
18
31. ANTENNA
Wrong spelling. See ANOINT.
announced, announcing, announcer, announcement
(not -n-)
annoyed, annoying, annoyance (not anoy or annoied)
annulled, annulling, annulment
See ADDING ENDINGS (iv).
(not -nn-)
Wrong spelling. See ANNOUNCE.
Wrong spelling. See ANNOY.
ANTE- means before,
antenatal = before birth
ANTI- means against,
antifreeze = against freezing
This means earlier in time or an ancestor, (not anti-)
See ANTE-/ANTI-.
This means very old-fashioned and primitive, literally
'before the flood of Noah', (not anti-)
See ANTE-/ANTI-.
This word has two plurals, each used in a different
sense:
Use ANTENNAE to refer to insects.
19
32. Use ANTENNAS to refer to television aerials.
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
(not ante-)
See ANTE-/ANTI-.
See ANECDOTE OR ANTIDOTE?.
(not -rh-)
(not ante-)
See ANTE-/ANTI-.
(not angs-)
(not angs-)
Both spellings are correct, (not -pp)
apologies (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
Wrong spelling. See UPON.
(i) Apostrophes can be used to show that letters
have been omitted:
in contractions
didn't
o'clock
you've
won't
20
33. APOSTROPHES
in poetry
o'er vales and hills
where'er you walk
in dialect
'Ere's 'Arry.
in retail
pick 'n' mix
salt 'n' vinegar
(ii) Apostrophes can be used to show ownership.
Follow these simple guidelines and you'll never
put the apostrophe in the wrong place.
Singular nouns or 'owners'
The tail of the dog
The dog's tail
Who 'owns' the tail? the dog
Put the apostrophe after
the owner. the dog'
Add -s. the dog's
Add what is 'owned'. the dog's tail
The smile of the princess
The princess's smile
Who 'owns' the smile? the princess
Put the apostrophe after
the owner. the princess'
Add -s. the princess's
Add what is 'owned'. the princess's smile
With proper names ending in -s, you have a choice,
depending upon how the name is pronounced.
Keats' poetry or Keats's poetry
But St James's Square, London, SW1
St James' (two syllables)
St James's (three syllables)
21
34. Plural nouns or 'owners'
Don't worry about whether you use 's or s' in the
plural. It will sort itself out.
The tails of the dogs
The dogs' tails
Who 'owns' the tails? the dogs
Put the apostrophe after
the owners. the dogs'
Add -s if there isn't one. (no need here)
Add what is 'owned'. the dogs' tails
The laughter of the women
The women's laughter
Who 'owns' the laughter? the women
Put the apostrophe
after the owners. the women'
Add -s if there isn't one. the women's
Add what is 'owned'. the women's laughter
And so, when reading, you will be able to distinguish
singular and plural 'owners'.
The princess's suitors.
The princesses' suitors.
The 'owner' is the word before the apostrophe.
(iii) Apostrophes are also used in condensed
expressions of time.
The work of a moment.
A moment's work.
The work of three years.
Three years' work.
If you follow the guidelines in (ii) above, you
will never make a mistake.
appalled, appalling (not -aul-)
See also ADDING ENDINGS (iv).
22
35. AOUAINT
(not -ence)
This word has two plurals, each used in a different
sense.
Use APPENDIXES in an anatomical sense.
Use APPENDICES when referring to supplementary
sections in books or formal documents.
See also FOREIGN PLURALS.
Wrong spelling. See APOLOGISE/APOLOGIZE.
Wrong spelling. See APOLOGY.
appraise or apprise?
To APPRAISE is to evaluate.
To APPRISE is to inform.
There are three distinct meanings of this word.
I APPRECIATE your kindness (= recognise
gratefully).
I APPRECIATE that you have had a difficult time
lately (= understand).
My cottage HAS APPRECIATED in value already
(= increased).
Some people would choose to avoid the second use
above (understand, realise) but the verb is now
widely used in this sense and this has become
acceptable.
approached, approaching (not apr-)
Wrong spelling. See ACQUAINT.
23
36. Wrong spelling. See ACQUAINTANCE.
aquarium (singular) aquaria or aquariums (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
Wrong spelling. See ACQUIESCE.
Wrong spelling. See ACQUIESCENCE.
Wrong spelling. See ACQUIRE.
Wrong spelling. See ARRANGE.
arbiter or arbitrator?
An ARBITER is a judge or someone with decisive
influence (an arbiter of fashion).
In addition, an ARBITER may intervene to settle a
dispute (-er).
An ARBITRATOR is someone who is officially
appointed to judge the rights and wrongs of a
dispute (-or).
arbitrator or mediator?
An ARBITRATOR reaches a judgement but is not
necessarily obeyed.
A MEDIATOR attempts to bring two opposing sides
together and to settle a dispute.
There are two interchangeable plural forms:
archipelagoes, archipelagos.
(not artic, although frequently mispronounced as
such)
24
37. ASPIRIN
(not arguement)
arranged, arranging, arrangement (not -r-)
See ADDING ENDINGS (ii).
American: artifact
Wrong spelling. See ARCTIC.
(not -cal)
See -CAL/-CLE.
artist or artiste?
Traditionally, an ARTIST is skilled in one or more
of the fine arts (painting, for example, or sculpture).
Traditionally, the term ARTISTE is reserved for a
performer or entertainer (a music-hall ARTISTE).
However, ARTIST is now being used to cover both
meanings in the sense of 'skilled practitioner', and
ARTISTE is becoming redundant.
as or like?
Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:
You look AS if you have seen a ghost.
You look AS though you have seen a ghost.
AS I expected, he's missed the train.
You look LIKE your mother.
Wrong spelling. See ASTHMA.
(not ashphalt, as it is frequently mispronounced)
(not asprin, as it is frequently mispronounced)
25
38. (not assasin or asassin)
Wrong spelling. See ASTHMA.
assume or presume?
To ASSUME something to be the case is to take it
for granted without any proof.
To PRESUME something to be the case is to base it
on the evidence available.
assurance or insurance?
Insurance companies distinguish between these two
terms.
ASSURANCE is the technical term given for
insurance against a certainty (e.g. death) where
payment is guaranteed.
INSURANCE is the technical term given for
insurance against a risk (such as fire, burglary, illness)
where payment is made only if the risk materialises.
(not asma or assma)
astrology or astronomy?
ASTROLOGY is the study of the influence of the
stars and planets on human life and fortune.
ASTRONOMY is the scientific study of the stars and
planets.
(not athelete)
(not atheletics)
attached, attaching, attachment (not -tch)
(not -able)
26
39. AXIS
(not -ance)
aural or oral?
AURAL refers to the ears and hearing.
ORAL refers to the mouth and speaking.
In speech these words can be very confusing as they
are pronounced identically.
(not authorative)
autobiography or biography?
An AUTOBIOGRAPHY is an account of his or her
life by the author.
A BIOGRAPHY is an account of a life written by
someone else.
automaton (singular) automata, automatons (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
avenge or revenge?
The words are very close in meaning but AVENGE is
often used in the sense of exacting just retribution,
punishing a wrong done to another.
Hamlet felt bound to AVENGE his father's death.
REVENGE is often used in the sense of 'getting
one's own back' for a petty offence.
See ADVERSE or AVERSE?.
Notice -wkw-. The spelling itself looks awkward!
axis (singular) axes (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
27
40. ia
(not -i-)
This word is an exception to the -y rule.
See ADDING ENDINGS (iii).
(not -tch-)
bacillus (singular) bacilli (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
bacterium (singular) bacteria (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
This word is often carelessly positioned with
disastrous effects on meaning.
See AMBIGUITY (iii).
banisters, bannisters (plural)
Although the first spelling is more widely used, both
spellings are correct.
(not -ian)
basic + ally (not basicly)
Wrong spelling. See BACHELOR.
bath or bathe?
Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:
I have a BATH every morning (= I have a wash in
the bath).
I BATH the baby every day (= wash in a bath).
I have had a new BATH fitted.
28
41. BENEFIT
We BATHE every day (= swim).
BATHE the wound with disinfectant (= cleanse).
We have a BATHE whenever we can (= a swim).
beach or beech?
Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:
Budleigh Salterton has a stony BEACH.
BEECH trees retain their leaves in autumn.
Use your knowledge of French beau to help you.
(not befor)
Note these forms and spellings:
I begin, I am beginning.
I began, I have begun.
(not -n-)
(not -ie-)
See EI/IE SPELLING RULE.
(not -ei)
See EI/IE SPELLING RULE.
believed, believing, believer
See EI/IE SPELLING RULE.
See ADDING ENDINGS (ii).
benefited, benefiting
It is a common mistake to use -tt-.
29
42. BERTH OR BIRTH?
berth or birth?
Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:
We have a spare BERTH on our boat.
We are proud to announce the BIRTH of a
daughter.
beside or besides?
Use BESIDE in the sense of next to, by the side of:
Your glasses are BESIDE your bed.
May I sit BESIDE you?
Use BESIDES in the sense of also, as well as:
BESIDES, I can't afford it.
BESIDES being very clever, Ann also works hard.
See AMONG OR BETWEEN?.
between you and I
Incorrect. Write: between you and me.
See PREPOSITIONS.
This prefix means 'two'.
Hence bicycle
bifocals
bigamy, and so on.
Note, however, that some words beginning with 'bi'
can be ambiguous.
See BIMONTHLY and BIWEEKLY.
See also BIANNUAL OR BIENNIAL?.
biannual or biennial?
BIANNUAL means twice a year (not -n-).
BIENNIAL means every two years (a biennial
festival) or taking two years to grow (horticultural,
etc), (not -ual)
30
43. BIWEEKLY
bi + cycle
(not bycycle or bycicle)
bidding or biding?
bid + ing = bidding
The BIDDING at the auction was fast and furious.
BIDDING farewell, the knight cantered away.
bide + ing = biding
Her critics were just BIDING their time.
See ADDING ENDINGS (i) and (ii).
Wrong spelling. See BEIGE.
See BIANNUAL OR BIENNIAL?.
Avoid using BIMONTHLY as it has two conflicting
meanings. It can mean both every two months and
also twice a month. (Compare BIWEEKLY.)
(not -nn-)
See AUTOBIOGRAPHY OR BIOGRAPHY?.
(not -iu-)
Wrong spelling. See BUILDING.
bivouacked, bivouacking
See SOFT c AND SOFT G.
This word has two conflicting meanings and is
31
44. perhaps best avoided. It can mean both every two
weeks (i.e. fortnightly) and also twice a week.
(Compare BIMONTHLY.)
(not -22-)
blond or blonde?
BLOND is used to describe men's hair.
BLOND/BLONDE is used to describe women's hair.
A BLONDE is a woman.
board or bored?
A BOARD is a piece of wood, also a committee or
similar group of people.
To BOARD means to get on (train, etc.) and also to
pay for living in someone's house and having food
provided.
BORED means uninterested.
boarder or border?
A BOARDER is a person who pays to live in
someone's house or school.
A BORDER is the edge or boundary of something.
(not boistrous, although often mispronounced as two
syllables)
Both spellings are correct, although the second
spelling is more commonly used.
See BOARDER OR BORDER?.
See BOARD OR BORED?.
bored by, bored with
(not bored or)
32
45. BOUGHT OR BROUGHT?
born or borne?
Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:
Dickens was BORN in Portsmouth.
She has BORNE five children.
He has BORNE a heavy burden of guilt all his life.
borrow or lend?
May I BORROW your pen? (= use your pen
temporarily)
Please LEND me your pen. (= pass it to me and
allow me to use it)
both... and
Take care with the positioning of each half of this
paired construction. Each must introduce
grammatically similar things:
He is BOTH clever AND hardworking.
(not: He both is clever and hardworking!)
He BOTH paints AND sculpts.
He bought BOTH the gardening tools AND the DIY
kit.
Notice, however, the ambiguity in the last example.
It could mean that there were just two gardening
tools and he bought both of them. In the case of
possible confusion, always replace:
He bought the gardening tools and also the DIY kit.
He bought the two gardening tools and also the DIY
kit.
He bought both of the gardening tools and also the
DIY kit.
bought or brought?
BOUGHT is the past tense of to buy.
She BOUGHT eggs, bacon and bread.
BROUGHT is the past tense of to bring.
33
46. They BROUGHT their books home.
(not -ey)
See ADDING ENDINGS (ii).
Round brackets enclose additional information which
the writer wants to keep separate from the main
body of the sentence.
Jane Austen (born in 1775) died in Winchester.
My neighbour (have you met her?) has won
£250,000.
Notice how sentences in brackets are not fully
punctuated.
They don't begin with a capital letter or have a
full stop at the end if they occur within another
sentence as in the example above. They do,
however, have a question mark or an exclamation
mark, if appropriate.
Square brackets indicate that the material has been
added to the original by another writer:
When I [Hilaire Belloc] am dead, I hope it may be
said:
'His sins were scarlet, but his books were read.'
breath or breathe?
BREATH is the noun, and rhymes with 'death'.
He called for help with his dying BREATH.
BREATHE is the verb and rhymes with 'seethe'.
BREATHE deeply and fill those lungs!
brief, briefly
(not -ei-)
(not -ian)
34
47. BUT
(not Britanny)
broach or brooch?
You BROACH a difficult topic or BROACH a bottle.
You wear a BROOCH.
(not brocolli)
(not brocken)
See BOUGHT OR BROUGHT?.
buffalo (singular) buffalo, buffaloes (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
(not -iu-)
Wrong spelling. See BUSINESS.
bureaux, bureaus (plural)
Both forms are correct.
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
(not -sy)
(not burgular, as often mispronounced)
Both forms are correct.
(not buisness)
See AND/BUT.
35
48. Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:
I need to BUY some new jeans.
The book is BY Charlotte Bronte.
Wait BY the gate.
The children rushed BY.
36
49. H
cactus (singular) cactuses or cacti (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
(not -ie-)
Adjectives end in -cal.
Nouns end in -cle.
e.g. critical article
logical bicycle
magical circle
musical cubicle
nautical cuticle
physical miracle
practical particle
theatrical spectacle
tropical uncle
whimsical vehicle
(not -er)
calf (singular) calves (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
callous or callus?
CALLOUS means cruel, insensitive, not caring
about how others feel.
CALLUS means a hard patch of skin or tissue.
Interestingly, skin may be CALLOUSED (made
hard) or CALLUSED (having calluses).
can or may?
Strictly speaking, CAN means 'being able' and MAY
means 'having permission'. It is best to preserve this
37
50. CANING OR CANNING?
distinction in formal contexts. However, informally,
CAN is used to cover both meanings:
You CAN go now (= are permitted).
caning or canning?
cane + ing = caning
CANING is now banned in all schools.
Can + ing = canning
The CANNING factory is closing down.
See ADDING ENDINGS (i) and (ii).
(not -nn-)
cannon or canon?
A CANON is a cleric.
A CANNON is a large gun.
cannot or can not?
Both forms are acceptable but the second is rarely
seen.
canoed, canoeing, canoeist
See ADDING ENDINGS (ii).
See CANNON OR CANON?.
Contraction of CANNOT.
canvas or canvass?
CANVAS is a rough cloth.
To CANVASS is to ask for votes.
capital letters
Use a capital letter in these circumstances:
to begin a sentence:
38
51. CAPITAL LETTERS
My father will be fifty tomorrow,
to begin sentences of direct speech:
'You will be sorry for this in the morning,' she
said.
She said, 'You will be sorry for this in the
morning. You never learn.'
for the pronoun T wherever it comes in the
sentence:
You know that I have no money,
for all proper nouns - names of:
people (Mary Browne)
countries (Malta)
languages (French)
religious festivals (Easter, Diwali)
firms (Express Cleaners)
organisations (the British Broadcasting
Corporation)
historical periods (the Renaissance)
(the Neolithic Period)
days of the week (Monday)
months of the year (September)
but not usually the seasons
Note these adjectives derived from proper nouns also
have a capital letter:
a Jewish festival; a German poet
However, the capital is dropped when the
connection with the proper noun becomes lost:
Venetian blinds, french windows
Note also that titles are capitalised only when part of
a proper noun:
Bishop Christopher Budd, otherwise the bishop
Aunt Gladys, otherwise my aunt
39
52. CAPITAL LETTERS
Captain Llewellyn, otherwise the captain
to begin lines of poetry (although some poets
like e.e. cummings dispense with this
convention)
to mark the first word and the subsequent key
words in titles:
The Taming of the Shrew
An Old Wives' Tale
for emphasis:
And then - BANG!
for some acronyms and initialisms:
NATO
UNESCO
CAFOD
OXFAM
PTO
RSVP
Note that some acronyms have now become
words in their own right and are no longer
written in capitals: laser, sauna, radar.
Note also that some initialisms are usually
written in lower case: i.e., e.g., c/o, wpm.
for the Deity as a mark of respect and for sacred
books:
God, Jesus Christ, the Holy Spirit, the Almighty,
Allah, Jehovah, Yahweh
the Bible, the Koran, the Vedas
to begin each word in an address:
Mrs Anna Sendall
10 Furze Crescent
ALPHINGTON
Hants PD6 9EF
40
53. CARRYING
for the salutation in a letter (first word and key
words only) and for the first letter of the
complimentary close:
Dear Sir
Dear Mrs Hughes
My dear niece
Yours faithfully
Yours sincerely
With much love
With best wishes
capital punishment or corporal punishment?
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT = death
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT = beating
(not -p-)
This is the only verb in the English language of more
than one syllable that must end in -ize.
(not -ian)
Wrong spelling. See CAPPUCCINO.
(not -rr-)
cargo (singular) cargoes (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
(not t -rr-, not -b-)
Wrong spelling. See CAREER.
carry + ing
41
54. CAST OR CASTE?
See ADDING ENDINGS (iii).
cast or caste?
Use CAST for a group of actors in a play and for a
plaster CAST and a CAST in an eye.
Use CASTE when referring to a social group in
Hindu society.
caster or castor?
Both caster sugar and castor sugar are correct.
Both sugar caster and sugar castor are correct.
Both casters and castors can be used when referring
to the little wheels fixed to the legs of furniture.
But castor oil, not caster oil.
Wrong spelling. See CATEGORICAL.
Wrong spelling. See CATEGORY.
(not -rh)
(not -y)
categorically (not cata-)
category (singular) categories (plural) (not cata-)
(not -flour)
(not -ie-)
See EI/IE SPELLING RULE.
(not Sello-)
42
55. CEREMONY
censer, censor or censure?
A CENSER is a container in which incense is burnt
during a religious ceremony.
A CENSOR is a person who examines plays, books,
films, etc. before deciding if they are suitable for
public performance or publication.
To CENSOR is to do the work of a CENSOR.
CENSURE is official and formal disapproval or
condemnation of an action.
To CENSURE is to express this condemnation in a
formal written or spoken statement.
centenarian or centurion?
A CENTENARIAN is someone who is at least 100
years old.
A CENTURION was the commander of a company
of 100 men in the ancient Roman army.
century (singular) centuries (plural) (not centua-)
See PLURALS (iii).
cereal or serial?
CEREAL is food processed from grain.
A SERIAL is a book or radio or television
performance delivered in instalments.
ceremonial or ceremonious?
Both adjectives come from the noun CEREMONY.
CEREMONIAL describes the ritual used for a formal
religious or public event (a CEREMONIAL occasion).
CEREMONIOUS describes the type of person who
likes to behave over-formally on social occasions. It
is not altogether complimentary (a CEREMONIOUS
wave of the hand).
ceremony (singular) ceremonies (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
43
56. CERTAIN OR CURTAIN
certain or curtain
CERTAIN means sure.
Are you CERTAIN that he apologised?
CURTAINS are window drapes.
Do draw the CURTAINS.
Note that the c sounds like s in certain and like k in
curtain.
See SOFT c AND SOFT G.
(not t -gable)
See SOFT c AND SOFT G.
chaotic
(not t charachter)
chateau/chateau (singular) chateaux or chateaux (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
check or cheque?
Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:
Always CHECK your work.
May I pay by CHEQUE? (not 'check' as in the
United States)
cherub (singular)
This word has two plurals.
Cherubim is reserved exclusively for the angels often
portrayed as little children with wings.
Cherubs can be used either for angels or for
enchanting small children.
(not t chesnut, as it is often mispronounced)
44
57. CHORD OR CORD?
chief (singular) chiefs (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
childish or childlike?
The teenager was rebuked by the magistrate for his
CHILDISH behaviour, (i.e. which he should have
outgrown)
The grandfather has retained his sense of
CHILDLIKE wonder at the beauty of the natural
world, (i.e. marvellously direct, innocent and
enthusiastic)
chimney (singular) chimneys (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
Wrong spelling. See CHOIR.
(not choclat although often mispronounced as such)
(not -se)
(not -io-)
I CHOOSE my words carefully.
I am CHOOSING my words carefully.
I CHOSE my words carefully yesterday.
I have CHOSEN them carefully.
chord or cord?
CHORD is used in a mathematical or musical
context.
CORD refers to string and is generally used when
referring to anatomical parts like the umbilical cord,
spinal cord and vocal cords.
Note-, you will occasionally see CHORD used instead
of CORD in a medical context but it seems very old-
fashioned now.
45
58. (not Cr-)
(not Cristmas or Chrismas)
(not cr-)
This word is often misused. It doesn't mean terrible
or serious. It means long-lasting, persistent, when
applied to an illness.
(not cry-)
Wrong spelling. See CRYSTAL.
Wrong spelling. See CEILING.
(not -rr)
cite, sight or site?
To CITE means to refer to.
SIGHT is vision or something seen.
A SITE is land, usually set aside for a particular
purpose.
See AMBIGUITY.
clothes or cloths?
CLOTHES are garments.
CLOTHS are dusters or scraps of material.
coarse or course?
COARSE means vulgar, rough:
COARSE language, COARSE cloth.
COURSE means certainly:
46
59. COLONEL OR KERNEL?
OF COURSE
COURSE also means a series of lectures, a direction,
a sports area, and part of a meal:
an advanced COURSE
to change COURSE
a golf COURSE
the main COURSE
(not -ie-)
(not -ar)
collaborated, collaborating
collaboration
collapsed, collapsing
(not -able)
collective nouns
See NOUNS.
(not colledge)
Wrong spelling. See COLOSSAL.
colonel or kernel?
A COLONEL is a senior officer.
A KERNEL is the inner part of a nut.
47
60. (i) Colons can introduce a list:
Get your ingredients together:
flour, sugar, dried fruit, butter and milk.
Note that a summing-up word should always
precede the colon (here 'ingredients').
(ii) Colons can precede an explanation or
amplification of what has gone before:
The teacher was elated: at last the pupils were
gaining in confidence.
Note that what precedes the colon must always
be able to stand on its own grammatically. It
must be a sentence in its own right.
(iii) Colons can introduce dialogue in a
play:
Henry (with some embarrassment): It's all my
fault.
(iv) Colons can be used instead of a comma to
introduce direct speech:
Henry said, with some embarrassment: 'It's all
my fault.'
(v) Colons can introduce quotations:
Donne closes the poem with the moving tribute:
'Thy firmness makes my circle just
And makes me end where I began.'
(vi) Colons can introduce examples as in this
reference book.
Compare SEMICOLONS.
(not t -11-)
48
61. COMMAS
(not color, as in American English)
Wrong spelling. See COMMEMORATE.
(four syllables, not three)
come + ing = coming (not comming)
See ADDING ENDINGS (ii).
Wrong spelling. See COMMISSION.
(i) Direct commands, if expressed emphatically,
require an exclamation mark:
Stop, thief!
Put your hands up!
Stop talking!
If expressed calmly and conversationally,
however, a full stop is sufficient:
Just wait there a moment and I'll be with you.
Tell me your story once again.
(ii) Reported commands (indirect commands) never
need an exclamation mark because, when they
are reported, they become statements.
He ordered the thief to stop.
She told him to put his hands up.
The teacher yelled at the class to stop talking.
Commas are so widely misused that it is worth
discussing their function in some detail. First, let us
make it very clear when commas cannot be used.
49
62. (a) A comma should never divide a subject from its
verb. The two go together:
My parents, had very strict views.
My parents had very strict views.
Take extra care with compound
subjects:
The grandparents, the parents, and the children,
were in some ways to blame.
The grandparents, the parents, and the children
were in some ways to blame.
(b) Commas should never be used in an attempt to
string sentences together. Sentences must be
either properly joined (and commas don't have
this function) or clearly separated by full stops,
question marks or exclamation marks.
Commas have certain very specific jobs to do within
a sentence. Let us look at each in turn:
(i) Commas separate items in a list:
I bought apples, pears, and grapes.
She washed up, made the beds, and had
breakfast.
The novel is funny, touching, and beautifully
written.
The final comma before 'and' in a list
is optional. However, use it to avoid
any ambiguity. See (ix) below.
(ii) Commas are used to separate terms of address
from the rest of the sentence:
Sheila, how nice to see you!
Can I help you, madam?
I apologise, ladies and gentlemen, for this delay.
Note that a pair of commas is needed in the last
example above because the term of address
50
63. COMMAS
occurs mid-sentence. It is a very common error
to omit one of the commas.
(iii) Commas are used to separate interjections, asides
and sentence tags like isn't it? don't you? haven't
you?. You'll notice in the examples below that
all these additions could be removed and these
sentences would still be grammatically sound:
My mother, despite her good intentions, soon
stopped going to the gym.
Of course, I'll help you when I can.
You've met Tom, haven't you?
(iv) Commas are used to mark off phrases in
apposition:
Prince Charles, the future king, has an older
sister.
The phrase 'the future king' is another way of
referring to 'Prince Charles' and is punctuated
just like an aside.
(v) A comma separates any material that precedes it
from the main part of the sentence:
Although she admired him, she would never go
out with him.
If you want to read the full story, buy The
Sunday Times.
Note that if the sentences are reversed so that
the main part of the sentence comes first, the
comma becomes optional.
(vi) Commas mark off participles and participial
phrases, whenever they come in the sentence:
Laughing gaily, she ran out of the room.
He flung himself on the sofa, overcome with
remorse.
The children, whispering excitedly, crowded
51
64. through the door.
For a definition of participles see PARTICIPLES.
(vii) Commas mark off some adjectival clauses. Don't
worry too much about the grammatical
terminology here. You'll be able to decide
whether you need to mark them off in your
own work by matching them against these
examples.
Can you see the difference in meaning that a
pair of commas makes here? Read the two
sentences aloud, pausing where the commas
indicate that you should pause in the first
sentence, and the two different meanings should
become clear:
The firemen, who wore protective clothing,
were uninjured. (= nobody injured)
The firemen who wore protective clothing were
uninjured, (but those who didn't wear it...)
(viii) Commas are used to mark a pause at a suitable
point in a long sentence. This will be very much
a question of style. Read your own work
carefully and decide exactly how you want it to
be read.
(ix) Commas are sometimes needed to clarify
meaning. In the examples below, be aware how
the reader could initially make an inappropriate
connection:
She reversed the car into the main road and my
brother waved goodbye.
She reversed the car into the main road and my
brother??
She reversed the car into the main road, and my
brother waved goodbye.
52
65. COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE
In the skies above the stars glittered palely.
In the skies above the stars??
In the skies above, the stars glittered palely.
Notice how the comma can sometimes be
essential with 'and' in a list:
We shopped at Moores, Browns, SuperValu,
Marks and Spencer and Leonards.
Is the fourth shop called Marks, or Marks and
Spencer?
Is the fifth shop called Leonards, or Spencer and
Leonards?
A comma makes all clear:
We shopped at Moores, Browns, Super Valu,
Marks and Spencer, and Leonards.
(not -m-)
Wrong spelling. See COMING.
(not -m-)
committed, committing, commitment
See ADDING ENDINGS (iv).
common nouns
See NOUNS.
comparatively (not compari-)
comparative and superlative
(i) Use the comparative form of adjectives and
adverbs when comparing two:
53
66. COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE
John is TALLER than Tom.
John works MORE ENERGETICALLY than Tom.
Use the superlative form when comparing three
or more:
John is the TALLEST of all the engineers.
John works THE MOST ENERGETICALLY of all
the engineers.
(ii) There are two ways of forming the comparative
and superlative of adjectives:
(a) Add -er and -est to short adjectives:
tall taller tallest
happy happier happiest
(b) Use more and most with longer adjectives:
dangerous more dangerous most dangerous
successful more successful most successful
The comparative and superlative forms of
adverbs are formed in exactly the same way:
(c) Short adverbs add -er and -est.
You run FASTER than I do.
He runs the FASTEST of us all.
(d) Use more and most with longer adverbs.
Nikki works MORE CONSCIENTIOUSLY
than Sarah.
Niamh works THE MOST
CONSCIENTIOUSLY of them all.
(iii) There are three irregular adjectives:
good better best
bad worse worst
many more most
There are four irregular adverbs:
54
67. COMPLEMENT OR COMPLIMENT?
well better best
badly worse worst
much more most
little less least
(iv) A very common error is to mix the two methods
of forming the comparative and the superlative:
more simpler simpler
most easiest easiest
(v) Another pitfall is to try to form the comparative
and superlative of absolute words like perfect,
unique, excellent, complete, ideal. Something is
either perfect or it isn't. It can't be more perfect
or less perfect, most perfect or least perfect.
compare to/compare with
Both constructions are acceptable but many people
still prefer to use 'compare with'.
Wrong spelling. See COMPARATIVE.
competitive, competitively
complacent or complaisant?
COMPLACENT = smug, self-satisfied
COMPLAISANT = obliging, willing to comply
Wrong spelling. See COMPLETELY.
complement or compliment?
COMPLEMENT = that which completes
Half the ship's COMPLEMENT were recruited in
Norway.
To COMPLEMENT - to go well with something
Her outfit was COMPLEMENTED by well-chosen
accessories.
COMPLIMENT = praise, flattering remarks
55
68. COMPLEMENTARY OR COMPLIMENTARY?
To COMPLIMENT = to praise
complementary or complimentary?
Use COMPLEMENTARY in the sense of completing
a whole:
COMPLEMENTARY medicine
COMPLEMENTARY jobs
Use COMPLIMENTARY in two senses:
(a) flattering
(b) free of charge
COMPLIMENTARY remarks
COMPLIMENTARY tickets
complete + ly (not completly, completley or
compleatly)
See ADDING ENDINGS (ii).
complex or complicated?
Both words mean 'made up of many different
intricate and confusing aspects'. However, use
COMPLEX when you mean 'intricate', and
COMPLICATED when you mean 'difficult to
understand'.
See COMPLEMENT OR COMPLIMENT?.
The report IS COMPOSED OF ten sections. (= is
made up of)
The report COMPRISES ten sections. (= contains)
Never use the construction 'is comprised of. It is
always incorrect grammatically.
(not -ize)
56
69. CONSISTENT
(not -ize)
(not -or)
conceived, conceiving, conceivable
See EI/IE SPELLING RULE.
conferred, conferring, conference
See ADDING ENDINGS (iv).
confidant, confidante or confident?
A CONFIDANT (male or female) or a CONFIDANTE
(female only) is someone to whom one tells one's
secrets 'in confidence'.
CONFIDENT means assured.
connection or connexion?
Both spellings are correct, but the first one is more
commonly used.
Used for both men and women.
consist in or consist of?
For Belloc, happiness CONSISTED IN 'laughter and
the love of friends', (consist in = have as its
essence)
Lunch CONSISTED OF bread, cheese and fruit.
(not -ant)
57
70. There are 21 consonants in the alphabet, all the
letters except for the vowels:
bcdfghjklmnpqrstvwxyz
Note, however, that y can be both a vowel and a
consonant:
y is a consonant when it begins a word or a syllable
(yolk, beyond);
y is a vowel when it sounds like i or e (sly, baby).
contagious or infectious?
Both refer to diseases passed to others.
Strictly speaking, CONTAGIOUS means passed by
bodily contact, and INFECTIOUS means passed by
means of air or water.
Used figuratively, the terms are interchangeable:
INFECTIOUS laughter, CONTAGIOUS enthusiasm.
(not contempory, as often mispronounced)
Nowadays, this word is used in two senses:
(a) happening or living at the same time (in the past)
(b) modern, current
Be aware of possible ambiguity if both these
meanings are possible in a given context:
Hamlet is being performed in contemporary dress,
(sixteenth-century or modern?)
contemptible or contemptuous
A person or an action worthy of contempt is
CONTEMPTIBLE.
A person who shows contempt is CONTEMPTUOUS.
continually
58
71. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT
continual or continuous?
CONTINUAL means frequently repeated, occurring
with short breaks only.
CONTINUOUS means uninterrupted.
Take care when placing the apostrophe in
contractions. It is placed where the letter has been
omitted and not where the two words are joined.
These happen to coincide in some contractions:
I'd (I would, I had)
they aren't (they are not)
it isn't (it is not)
you hadn't (you had not)
you wouldn't (you would not)
she won't (she will not)
we haven't (we have not)
I shan't (I shall not)
It was common in Jane Austen's time to use two
apostrophes in shan't (sha'n't) to show that two sets
of letters had been omitted but this is no longer
correct today.
controlled, controlling
(not -or)
(not -ance)
conveniently (not convien-)
See CHORD OR CORD?.
corporal punishment
See CAPITAL OR CORPORAL PUBLISHMENT?.
59
72. (not -r-)
(not -ance)
correspondent or co-respondent?
A CORRESPONDENT is someone who writes
letters.
A CO-RESPONDENT is cited in divorce proceedings.
could of
This is incorrect and arises from an attempt to write
down what is heard. Write 'could've' in informal
contexts and 'could have' in formal ones.
I COULD'VE given you a lift.
I COULD HAVE given you a lift.
Beware also: should of/would of/must of/might of.
All are incorrect forms.
See CONTRACTIONS.
council or counsel?
A COUNCIL is a board of elected representatives.
COUNSEL is advice, also the term used for a
barrister representing a client in court.
councillor or counsellor?
A COUNCILLOR is an elected representative.
A COUNSELLOR is one who gives professional
guidance, such as a study COUNSELLOR, a marriage
COUNSELLOR, a debt COUNSELLOR.
This is one of the few exceptions to the IE/El
spelling rule.
See IE/El SPELLING RULE.
60
73. CRYSTAL
(not -gous)
See SOFT c AND SOFT G.
See COARSE OR COURSE?.
courteously, courtesy
credible or credulous?
If something is CREDIBLE, it is believable.
If someone is CREDULOUS, he or she is gullible (i.e.
too easily taken in).
crisis (singular) crises (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
criterion (singular) criteria (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
Both spellings are correct.
This word is frequently misspelt.
Remember critic + ism.
Wrong spelling. See CHRONIC.
cried, crying
See ADDING ENDINGS (iii).
Wrong spelling. See CHRYSANTHEMUM.
(not chr-)
61
74. (not cub-)
curb or kerb
To CURB one's temper means to control or restrain
it.
A CURB is a restraint (e.g. a curb bit for a horse).
A KERB is the edging of a pavement.
(not -ious-)
(not -ey)
currant or current?
A CURRANT is a small dried grape used in cooking.
A CURRENT is a steady flow of water, air or
electricity.
CURRENT can also mean happening at the present
time (as in CURRENT affairs, CURRENT practice).
curriculum (singular) curriculums/curricula (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
curriculum vitae
(abbreviation: CV)
See CERTAIN OR CURTAIN?.
62
75. D
(nott dayly)
This is an exception to the -y rule.
See ADDING ENDINGS (iii).
dairy or diary?
We buy our cream at a local DAIRY.
Kate writes in her DIARY every day.
dangling participles
See PARTICIPLES.
Dashes are used widely in informal notes and letters.
(i) A dash can be used to attach an afterthought:
I should love to come - that's if I can get the
time off.
(ii) A dash can replace a colon before a list in
informal writing:
The thieves took everything - video, television,
cassettes, computer, camera, the lot.
(iii) A dash can precede a summary:
Video, television, cassettes, computer, camera -
the thieves took the lot.
(iv) A pair of dashes can be used like a pair of
commas or a pair of brackets around a
parenthesis:
Geraldine is - as you know - very shy with
strangers.
(v) A dash can mark a pause before the climax is
reached:
There he was at the foot of the stairs - dead.
63
76. (vi) Dashes can indicate hesitation in speech:
I - er - don't - um - know what - what to say.
(vii) Dashes can indicate missing letters or even
missing words where propriety or discretion
require it:
c 1 (ship of the desert)
Susan L— comes from Exeter.
He swore softly, ' it'.
data (plural) datum (singular)
Strictly speaking, DATA should be used with a plural
verb:
The DATA have been collected by research students.
You will, however, increasingly see DATA used with
a singular verb and this use has now become
acceptable.
The DATA has been collected by research students.
See NUMBERS for a discussion of how to set out
dates.
deceased or diseased?
DECEASED means dead.
DISEASED means affected by illness or infection.
(not -ie)
See EI/IE SPELLING RULE.
decent or descent?
DECENT means fair, upright, reasonable.
DESCENT means act of coming down, ancestry.
decided, deciding (not decied-)
64
77. DE LAPIDATED
Wrong spelling. See DECEIT.
Wrong spelling. See DECEIVE.
(not de-)
(not -id)
defective or deficient?
DEFECTIVE means not working properly (a
DEFECTIVE machine).
DEFICIENT means lacking something vital (a diet
DEFICIENT in vitamin C).
deferred, deferring, deference
See ADDING ENDINGS (iv).
Wrong spelling. See DEFINITE.
See DEFECTIVE OR DEFICIENT?.
Wrong spelling. See DEFINITE.
(not -ff-, not -ate)
Wrong spelling. See DIESEL.
Wrong spelling. See DILAPIDATED.
65
78. See ALLUSION, DELUSION OR ILLUSION?.
Both spellings are correct.
dependant or dependent?
The adjective (meaning reliant) is always -ent.
She is a widow with five DEPENDENT children.
I am absolutely DEPENDENT on a pension.
The noun (meaning someone who is dependent) has
traditionally been spelt -ant. However, the American
practice of writing either -ant or -ent for the noun
has now spread here. Either spelling is now
considered correct for the noun but be aware that
some conservative readers would consider this
slipshod.
She has five DEPENDANTS/DEPENDENTS,
See DECENT OR DESCENT?.
(not tdis-)
(not -scrib-)
Wrong spelling. See DISEASE.
desert or dessert?
A DESERT is sandy.
A DESSERT is a pudding.
(not dess-)
66
79. DEVICE/DEVISE
(nott desireable)
See ADDING ENDINGS (ii).
(not t desparate)
The word is derived from spes (Latin word for
hope). This may help you to remember the e in the
middle syllable.
See DESERT OR DESSERT?.
Wrong spelling. See DESICCATED.
destroyed, destroying (not dis-)
See ADDING ENDINGS (iii).
(not t detatched)
deterred, deterring
See ADDING ENDINGS (iv).
(not deteriate, as it is often mispronounced)
(not -ant)
developed, developing (not -pp-)
(not developement)
DEVICE is the noun.
A padlock is an intriguing DEVICE.
67
80. DEVISE is the verb.
Try to DEVISE a simple burglar alarm.
diagnosis (singular) diagnoses (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
diagnosis or prognosis?
DIAGNOSIS is the identification of an illness or a
difficulty.
PROGNOSIS is the forecast of its likely
development and effects.
diary (singular) diaries (plural)
See PLURALS (iii).
See DAIRY OR DIARY?.
dictionary (singular) dictionaries (plural) (not -nn-)
See PLURALS (iii).
(not did'nt)
See CONTRACTIONS.
(not deisel)
See EI/IE SPELLING RULE.
Both spellings are correct.
Wrong spelling. See DIFFICULT.
(not -ance)
(not t -ant)
different from/to/than
'Different from' and 'different to' are now both
68
81. DIRECT SPEECH
considered acceptable forms.
My tastes are DIFFERENT FROM yours.
My tastes are DIFFERENT TO yours.
Conservative users would, however, much prefer the
preposition 'from' and this is widely used in formal
contexts.
'Different than' is acceptable in American English
but is not yet fully acceptable in British English.
(not differcult, not difficalt)
(not delapidated)
This word is often used loosely to mean 'a problem'.
Strictly speaking it means a difficult choice between
two possibilities.
dinghy or dingy?
A DINGHY is a boat (plural - dinghies).
See PLURALS (iii).
DINGY means dull and drab.
dingo (singular) dingoes or dingos (plural)
dining or dinning?
dine + ing = dining (as in dining room)
din + ing = dinning (noise dinning in ears)
See ADDING ENDINGS (i) and (ii).
(not diptheria as it is often mispronounced)
(not dipthong as it is often mispronounced)
direct speech
See INVERTED COMMAS.
69
82. dis + agree + able
dis + appear
(not -ence)
dis + appoint
dis + approve
disassociate or dissociate?
Both are correct, but the second is more widely used
and approved.
(not disasterous, as it is often mispronounced)
disc or disk?
Use 'disc' except when referring to computer disks.
(not disiple)
discover or invent?
You DISCOVER something that has been there all
the time unknown to you (e.g. a star).
You INVENT something if you create it for the first
time (e.g. a time machine).
discreet or discrete?
You are DISCREET if you can keep secrets and
behave diplomatically.
Subject areas are DISCRETE if they are quite
separate and unrelated.
70
83. DISINTERESTED OR UNINTERESTED?
discrepancy (singular) discrepancies (plural)
Wrong spelling. See DESCRIBE.
Wrong spelling. See DESCRIPTION.
Wrong spelling. See DESCRIPTION.
discussed, discussing
See DECEASED OR DISEASED?.
(not t disintergrate)
disinterested or uninterested?
Careful users would wish to preserve a distinction in
meaning between these two words. Use the word
DISINTERESTED to mean 'impartial, unselfish,
acting for the good of others and not for yourself.
My motives are entirely DISINTERESTED; it is
justice I am seeking.
Use UNINTERESTED to mean 'bored'.
His teachers say he is reluctant to participate and is
clearly UNINTERESTED in any activities the school
has to offer.
Originally, DISINTERESTED was used in this sense
(= having no interest in, apathetic), and it is
interesting that this meaning is being revived in
popular speech.
71
84. Avoid this use in formal contexts, however, for it is
widely perceived as being incorrect.
Wrong spelling. See DISCIPLE.
See DISC OR DISK?.
displace or misplace?
To displace is to move someone or something from
its usual place:
a DISPLACED hip; a DISPLACED person
To misplace something is to put it in the wrong
place (and possibly forget where it is):
a MISPLACED apostrophe; MISPLACED kindness
Wrong spelling. See DISAPPEAR.
Wrong spelling. See DISAPPOINT.
Wrong spelling. See DISAPPROVE.
(dis + satisfied)
See DISASSOCIATE OR DISSOCIATE?.
Wrong spelling. See DESTROY.
divers or diverse
The first is rarely used nowadays except jokingly or
in mistake for the second.
DIVERS means 'several', 'of varying types': DIVERS
reference books.
DIVERSE means 'very different': DIVERSE opinions,
72
85. DOUBLE NEGATIVES
DIVERSE interests.
does or dose?
DOES he take sugar? He DOES, (pronounced 'duz')
Take a DOSE of cough mixture every three hours.
(not does'nt)
See CONTRACTIONS.
domino (singular) dominoes (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
(not do'nt)
See CONTRACTIONS.
See DOES OR DOSE?.
double meaning
See AMBIGUITY.
double negatives
The effect of two negatives is to cancel each other
out. This is sometimes done deliberately and can be
effective:
I am not ungenerous. ( = 1 am very generous.)
He is not unintelligent. (= He is quite intelligent.)
Frequently, however, it is not intentional and the
writer ends up saying the opposite of what is meant:
I haven't had no tea. ( = 1 have had tea.)
You don't know nothing. (= You know something.)
Be particularly careful with 'barely', 'scarcely',
'hardly'. These have a negative force.
I wasn't SCARCELY awake when you rang. ( = 1
was very awake.)
Be careful too with constructions like this:
73
86. DOUBLING RULE
I wouldn't be surprised if he didn't come.
Say either: I wouldn't be surprised if he
came,
or: I would be surprised if he
didn't come.
Sometimes writers put so many negatives in a
sentence that the meaning becomes too complicated
to unravel:
Mr Brown denied vehemently that it was unlikely
that no one would come to the concert.
Does Mr Brown think that the concert will be
popular or not?
Rewrite as either:
Mr Brown was certain the concert would be well
attended.
Or: Mr Brown feared that no one would come to the
concert.
doubling rule
See ADDING ENDINGS (i) and (iv).
(not dout)
The word is derived from the Latin word dubitare,
to doubt. It may help you to remember that the
silent b is there.
Down's syndrome
(not Downe's)
(one word)
draft or draught?
A DRAFT is a first or subsequent attempt at a piece
of written work before it is finished.
A DRAUGHT is a current of cool air in a room.
74
87. DUE TO/OWING TO
One also refers to a DRAUGHT of ale, a game of
DRAUGHTS and a boat having a shallow DRAUGHT.
drawers or draws?
DRAWS is a verb.
She DRAWS very well for a young child.
DRAWERS is a noun.
The DRAWERS of the sideboard are very stiff.
Both spellings are correct.
drier or dryer?
DRIER is generally used for the comparative form
(DRIER = more dry).
DRYER is generally used for a drying machine (hair
DRYER, clothes DRYER)
However, both spellings are interchangeable.
drunken + ness
(exception to the -y rule)
See ADDING ENDINGS (iii).
dual or duel?
DUAL means two (e.g. DUAL controls, DUAL
carriageway).
DUEL means fight or contest.
(not dutchess)
due to/owing to
Strictly speaking, 'due to' should refer to a noun:
His absence was DUE TO sickness, (noun)
The delay was DUE TO leaves on the line, (noun)
'Owing to', strictly speaking, should refer to a verb:
75
88. The march was cancelled OWING TO the storm.
(verb)
OWING TO an earlier injury, he limped badly.
(verb)
However, in recent years, the use of 'due to' where
traditionally 'owing to' would be required has
become widespread. Nevertheless, some careful
writers continue to preserve the distinction and you
may wish to do so too in a formal context.
See DUAL OR DUEL?.
(not duely)
This is an exception to the magic -e rule.
See ADDING ENDINGS (ii).
Wrong spelling. See DUCHESS.
Both spellings are correct.
dyeing or dying?
DYEING comes from the verb to dye.
She was DYEING all her vests green.
DYING comes from the verb to die.
She cursed him with her DYING breath.
76
89. E
earnest or Ernest?
EARNEST = serious and sincere
ERNEST = masculine first name
echo (singular) echoes (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
economic or economical?
ECONOMIC = related to the economy of the
country, or industry or business
ECONOMICAL = thrifty, avoiding extravagance
ecstasy (singular) ecstasies (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
illegal drug
-ed or -t?
These can be either:
burned burnt
dreamed dreamt
dwelled dwelt
kneeled knelt
leaned leant
leaped leapt
learned learnt
smelled smelt
spelled spelt
spilled spilt
spoiled spoilt
eerie or eyrie?
EERIE = strange, weird, disturbing
EYRIE = an eagle's nest
77
90. See AFFECT OR EFFECT?.
effective, effectual or efficient?
EFFECTIVE = able to produce a result:
an EFFECTIVE cure
an EFFECTIVE speech
EFFECTUAL = likely to be completely successful:
EFFECTUAL prayer
EFFECTUAL legislation
EFFICIENT = working well without wasting time,
money or effort:
an EFFICIENT secretary
an EFFICIENT engine
ei/ie spelling rule
Remember the jingle:
i before e
except after c
or when sounded like a
as in 'neighbour' and 'weigh'.
Here are some examples which follow the rule.
There are plenty of others.
ie ei after c
achieve ceiling
believe conceited
chief conceive
field perceive
friend receive
hygiene ei sounding like a
priest eight
relief reign
retrieve reindeer
shield skein
shriek sleigh
thief vein
78
91. E I T H E R . . . OR
18 exceptions
caffeine forfeit seize
codeine heifer sheikh
counterfeit height sovereign
either leisure surfeit
Fahrenheit neither weir
foreign protein weird
Proper names (e.g. of people or countries) don't
follow the rule: Deirdre, Keith, Neil, Sheila, Madeira,
etc.
(notice -hth)
See EI/IE SPELLING RULE.
(not t -ie-) An exception to the EI/IE SPELLING RULE.
either.. .or
(i) Take care with singular and plural verbs.
Use these exemplar sentences as a guide:
Either Jack or Tom was there, (singular verb to
match Jack (singular) or Tom (singular))
Either Jack or his brothers were there, (plural
verb to match 'brothers' (plural) which is closer
to it than 'Jack' (singular))
Either his brothers or Jack was there, (singular
verb this time because 'Jack' (singular) is closer
to the verb than 'brothers')
(ii) Be careful to place each part of the 'either... or'
construction correctly.
I have decided either that I have to build an
extension or I have to move.
I have decided that either I have to build an
extension or I have to move.
79
92. In the example above, there are these two
possibilities:
I have to build an extension.
I have to move.
'Either' precedes the first one and 'or' precedes
the second.
The second one could be shortened:
I have decided that either I have to build an
extension or (I have to) move.
I have decided that either I have to build an
extension or move.
It is important that the two constructions
following 'either' and 'or' should be parallel
ones:
either meat or fish
either green or red
either to love or to hate
either with malice or with kindness.
If the second construction is shortened to avoid
repetition, this is fine. The missing words are
obvious and can be supplied readily.
elf (singular) elves (plural)
See PLURALS (v).
eligible or legible?
ELIGIBLE = suitably qualified
LEGIBLE = able to be read
See ALLUDE OR ELUDE?.
embargo (singular) embargoes (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
80
93. END STOPS
embarrassed, embarrassing (not -r-)
See AMEND OR EMEND?.
emergency (singular) emergencies (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
emigrant or immigrant?
An EMIGRANT leaves his or her country to live in
another.
An IMMIGRANT moves into a country to live
permanently.
eminent or imminent?
EMINENT = famous
IMMINENT = about to happen
Both spellings are correct.
Both spellings are correct.
end stops
There are three end stops: a full stop (.), an
exclamation mark (!), and a question mark (?).
Use a full stop to end a statement.
There are five eggs in the fridge.
Use an exclamation mark with a command or an
exclamation.
Get out!
Use a question mark to end a question.
81
94. Where do you live?
See EXCLAMATION MARKS.
FULL STOPS.
QUESTION MARKS.
See ADDING ENDINGS.
enemy (singular) enemies (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
This refers to a grave sin or a crime, or a disaster on
a huge scale.
We gradually realised the full ENORMITY of the
tragedy.
It is often used in popular speech to mean
'enormousness', 'hugeness', 'immensity'. This should
be avoided in a formal context.
enquiry or inquiry?
Both spellings are correct and there is no difference
in meaning. British English favours the first and
American English the second.
Some writers reserve the first for a general request
for information and the second for a formal
investigation, but this is by no means necessary.
enrolled, enrolling
(British English - enrol; American English - enroll)
(British English - enrolment; American English -
enrollment)
ensure or insure?
to ENSURE = to make sure
to INSURE = to arrange for financial compensation
in the case of loss, injury, damage or death
82
95. ESPECIALLY OR SPECIALLY?
(not -ou-)
enveloped, enveloping, envelopment (stress on
second syllable)
envelope (singular)
envelopes (plural) (stress on third syllable)
(not enviroment)
epigram or epitaph?
EPIGRAM = a short witty saying
EPITAPH = an inscription on a tombstone
equipped, equipping, equipment
See ADDING ENDINGS (iv).
See EARNEST OR ERNEST?.
erratum (singular) errata (plural)
See FOREIGN PLURALS.
err + ing (not -r-)
(not -rr-)
especially or specially?
The two words are very close in meaning and
sometimes overlap. However, use these exemplar
sentences as a guide to exclusive uses:
I bought the car ESPECIALLY for you (= for you
alone).
We are awaiting a SPECIALLY commissioned report
(- for a special purpose).
83
96. estuary (singular) estuaries (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
(not t e.t.c. or ect.)
(i) etc. is an abbreviation of the Latin et cetera
which means 'and other things'. It is therefore
incorrect to write 'and etc.'.
(ii) Avoid using 'etc.' in formal writing. Either list all
the items indicated by the vague and lazy 'etc.',
or introduce the given selection with a phrase
like 'including', 'such as' or 'for example'.
eventual + ly (not eventully)
(not exagerate)
Wrong spelling. See EXHAUSTED.
(not -ant)
See ACCEPT OR EXCEPT?.
exceptionable or exceptional?
EXCEPTIONABLE = open to objection
EXCEPTIONAL = unusual
Wrong spelling. See EXERCISE.
excited, exciting, excitement
See ADDING ENDINGS (ii).
84
97. EXPENSE
exclaimed, exclaiming
(not -claim-)
exclamation mark
Use an exclamation mark:
(i) with exclamations
Ouch! Oh! Hey!
(ii) with vehement commands
Stop thief! Help! Jump!
See COMMANDS.
(not excercise)
(not exausted)
exhausting or exhaustive?
EXHAUSTING = tiring
EXHAUSTIVE = thorough, fully comprehensive
(not -er-)
(not expidition)
The second syllable is derived from the Latin word
pes, pedis (foot, of the foot). This may help you to
remember -ped-. The words pedal, pedestrian,
pedometer all come from this same Latin root.
(not -ible)
85
98. (not expierience, not -ance)
The second syllable is derived from the Latin word
per, meaning through. (Experience is what we gain
from going 'through' something.)
explained, explaining
(not -plain-)
explicit or implicit?
EXPLICIT = stated clearly and openly
IMPLICIT = implied but not actually stated
Wrong spelling. See EXPENSE.
Wrong spelling. See EXPENSIVE.
Wrong spelling. See EXTREMELY.
extra + ordinary
(not -ence)
(not -ent)
extreme + ly
Wrong spelling. See EXTRAORDINARY.
(not -ence)
86
99. EYRIE
(not -ent)
See EERIE OR EYRIE?.
87
100. F
(All five vowels occur in this word once only and in
alphabetical order.)
facilities or faculties?
FACILITIES = amenities
FACULTIES = mental or physical aptitudes
Wrong spelling. See FASCINATE.
factory (singular) factories (plural)
See PLURALS (iv).
(not -ie-)
See EI/IE SPELLING RULE.
faithful + ly
See SINCERELY for guidelines when punctuating a
complimentary close to a letter (fully blocked and
also traditional layout).
(not fammiliar)
family (singular) families (plural)
(not -mm-)
farther or further?
Both words can be used to refer to physical distance
although some writers prefer to keep 'farther' for
this purpose.
I can walk FARTHER than you.
I can walk FURTHER than you.
FURTHER is used in a figurative sense:
88
101. FEWER OR LESS?
Nothing was FURTHER from my mind.
FURTHER is also used in certain expressions:
FURTHER education
until FURTHER notice
(not facinate)
(not -ate)
(notT -able)
Notice the word has four syllables and not three as it
is often mispronounced.
fewer or less?
FEWER is the comparative form of 'few'.
It is used with plural nouns:
FEWER vegetables
FEWER responsibilities
FEWER children
LESS is the comparative form of 'little'.
It is used in the sense of 'a small amount' rather
than 'a fewer number of:
LESS enthusiasm
LESS sugar
LESS petrol
LESS THAN is used with number alone, and
expressions of time and distance:
LESS THAN a thousand
LESS THAN ten seconds
LESS THAN four miles
89
102. FIANCE OR FIANCEE?
It is considered incorrect to use 'less' instead of
'fewer' although such confusion is frequent in
popular speech.
As a rule of thumb, remember:
FEWER = not so many
LESS = not so much
fiance or fiancee?
FIANCE = masculine
FIANCEE - feminine
Note the accent in both words.
fictional or fictitious?
FICTIONAL = invented for the purpose of fiction,
related to fiction
FICTIONAL texts
FICTIONAL writing
FICTITIOUS = false, not true
a FICTITIOUS report
a FICTITIOUS name and address
Either word can be used to describe a character in a
work of fiction: a FICTIONAL or FICTITIOUS
character.
(not firey)
fifteenth
fiftieth
final + ly (not -aly)
90
103. FOR- OR FORE-?
finished, finishing (not -nn-)
Wrong spelling. See FIERY.
flamingo (singular) flamingoes or flamingos (plural)
flammable or inflammable
Both words mean 'easily bursting into flame'. People
often think that inflammable is the negative form but
the prefix 'in' here means 'into'.
The opposite of these two words is non-flammable
or non-inflammable.
flaunt or flout?
FLAUNT = to show off. FLAUNT one's wealth.
FLOUT = to disregard. FLOUT all the rules.
they fled, have fled, are fleeing
(not -able)
flu or flue?
FLU = influenza (not 'flu although an abbreviation)
FLUE = a pipe or duct for smoke and gases
(not flourescent)
they flew, have flown, are flying
focused or focussed (both correct)
focusing or focussing (both correct)
for- or fore-?
A useful rule of thumb is to remember the usual
meaning of the prefixes:
91
104. FORBEAR OR FOREBEAR?
FOR- = not, or something negative
(forbid, forfeit, forget, forsake)
FORE- = before
(foreboding, forecast, forefathers)
See individual entries for
FORBEAR OR FOREBEAR?
FOREWORD OR FORWARD?.
forbear or forebear?
FORBEAR (stress on second syllable) = restrain
oneself
FORBEAR or FOREBEAR (stress on first syllable)
= ancestor
forbad or forbade (both correct), forbidden,
forbidding
(not -able)
(not forcast)
Either spelling can be used.
Either spelling can be used.
Either spelling can be used.
An exception to the rule.
See EI/IE SPELLING RULE.
foreign plurals
Some foreign words in English have retained their
foreign plurals. Some have both foreign and English
plurals. Take care, however, with the words that are
asterisked because the foreign plural of these is used
92