English and its Uses

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Steve
This course will provide a review of reading and writing for students who need to strengthen their backgrounds in English before taking university-level courses requiring university-level reading and writing. It establishes a foundation for success in subsequent university-level courses. This course manual supplements and complements a blend of resources & platforms.
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2. 2 Contents
COURSE MANUAL
Use of English
GST101
Modibbo Adama University of Technology
Open and Distance Learning Course Development Series
3. 2016 Academic Collective.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the copyright owner – Academic Collective.
Institution:
E-mail: mail@cdl.mautech.edu.ng
Website: www.cdl.mautech.edu.ng
4. 4 Contents
Course Development Team
Credits
All illustrations (photos and charts) used are sourced from www.edutechportal.org/resources except otherwise
indicated. Credits / sources are properly placed by the image.
5. Use of English
Contents
About this Course Manual 1
How this Course Manual is structured .................................................................................................................................. 1
Course overview 3
Welcome to Use of English GST101 ....................................................................................................................................... 3
Use of English GST101 — is this course for you? ............................................................................................................. 3
Course outcomes ........................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Study Skills ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Timeframe ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Need help? ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Academic Support ......................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Assessments .................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Study Session 1 9
Language Skill (Listening) .......................................................................................................................................................... 9
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1 What is Listening? ................................................................................................................................................................ 10
1.2 Types of Listening ................................................................................................................................................................ 13
1.3 Bad Listening Habit ............................................................................................................................................................. 15
Session Summary ........................................................................................................................................................................ 17
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Study Session 2 19
Language Skill (Speaking) ........................................................................................................................................................ 19
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
2.1 The Sounds of English ........................................................................................................................................................ 20
Session Review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 34
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 34
Study Session 3 35
Language Skill (Reading) .......................................................................................................................................................... 35
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
3.1 What is Reading? .................................................................................................................................................................. 36
3.2 Methods of Reading ........................................................................................................................................................... 38
3.3 Sentence Analyses and Sentence Comprehension ................................................................................................. 40
3.4 Bad Reading Habits ............................................................................................................................................................. 42
6. ii Contents
Session Summary ........................................................................................................................................................................ 44
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 44
Study Session 4 45
Language Skill (Writing) ............................................................................................................................................................ 45
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 45
4.1 What is Writing? ................................................................................................................................................................... 46
4.2 Types of Writing ................................................................................................................................................................... 47
4.3 Summary Writing ................................................................................................................................................................. 50
Session Review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 51
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 52
Study Session 5 53
Hierarchical Element of Language (Morpheme) ............................................................................................................. 53
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
5.1 What is Morpheme? ............................................................................................................................................................ 54
5.2 Types of Morpheme ............................................................................................................................................................ 56
Session Review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 57
Study Session 6 58
Hierarchical Element of Language (The Word) ................................................................................................................ 58
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 58
6.1 Defining Words ..................................................................................................................................................................... 59
6.2 Types of Words ..................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Session Session ............................................................................................................................................................................ 62
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 62
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 62
Study Session 7 63
The Phrase/Group ....................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
7.1 What is a Phrase? ................................................................................................................................................................. 63
7.2 Types of Phrase ..................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Session Review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 71
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 71
Study Session 8 72
The Clause ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 72
8.1 What is a Clause? ................................................................................................................................................................. 72
7. Session Review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 78
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 78
Study Session 9 79
Sentence.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
9.1 What is a Sentence? ............................................................................................................................................................ 79
9.2 Types of Sentences .............................................................................................................................................................. 80
Session Review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 84
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 84
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 85
Study Session 10 87
Word Group and Determinants ............................................................................................................................................. 87
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
10.1 What are Word Classes? ................................................................................................................................................. 87
10.2 The Determiners ................................................................................................................................................................. 88
Session Review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 91
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 92
Study Session 11 93
Nouns, Pronouns and Verbs ................................................................................................................................................... 93
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 93
11.1 What is a Noun? ................................................................................................................................................................. 94
11.2 Defining Pronouns ............................................................................................................................................................ 98
11.3 What are Verbs? .............................................................................................................................................................. 103
Session Review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Assessment ................................................................................................................................................................................. 105
Resources..................................................................................................................................................................................... 105
Study Session 12 107
Adverbs, Adjectives and Prepositions .............................................................................................................................. 107
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................ 107
12.1 What is an Adverb? ........................................................................................................................................................ 108
12.2 What is an Adjective? .................................................................................................................................................... 111
12.3 Prepositions ...................................................................................................................................................................... 113
Session Review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 114
Assessment ................................................................................................................................................................................. 114
Resources..................................................................................................................................................................................... 115
Study Session 13 117
Conjunctions and Interjections ........................................................................................................................................... 117
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................ 117
13.1 What is Conjunction? .................................................................................................................................................... 117
13.2 Interjections ...................................................................................................................................................................... 119
8. iv Contents
Session Review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 119
Assessment ................................................................................................................................................................................. 120
Resources..................................................................................................................................................................................... 120
Study Session 14 121
Registers ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 121
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................ 121
14.1 Defining Register ............................................................................................................................................................ 122
14.2 Types of Register ............................................................................................................................................................ 123
Session Review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 135
Assessment ................................................................................................................................................................................. 135
Resources..................................................................................................................................................................................... 136
Feedback to SAQ Items 137
References 142
9. GST101 Use of English
About this Course Manual
Use of English GST101 is provided to you by MAUTECH-CDL, AS IS. Module is
localised and adapted to ODL format under the Academic Collective.
How this Course Manual is
Course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course. Information
contained in the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
 Where to get help.
 Course assessments.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before
starting your study.
The course content
The course is broken down into Study Sessions. Each Study Session comprises:
 An introduction to the Study Session content.
 Learning outcomes.
 Study Session preview.
 New terminology.
 Structured content of the study session with a variety of focus articles, learning
activities and learning devices.
 Study Session review.
 Self Assessments.
 Resources for further studying.
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10. About this Course Manual
Your comments
After completing Use of English we would appreciate it if you would take a few
moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this course. Your feedback
might include comments on:
 Course content and structure.
 Course reading materials and resources.
 Course assessments.
 Course duration.
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this course. You
can forward your comments to feedback.mautech@edutechportal.org
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11. GST101 Use of English
Course overview
Welcome to Use of English
This course, GST101) will provide a review of reading and writing for students who
need to strengthen their backgrounds in English before taking university-level
courses requiring university-level reading and writing. It establishes a foundation
for success in subsequent university-level courses.
This course manual supplements and complements a blend of resources &
platforms:
GST101 Audiobook – available via Audio Resources Library app on your official
mobile device and accessible online at: www.arlibrary.cdl.mautech.edu.ng.
GST101 Courseware – available in your course pack as a disk, it is also
downloadable from your course website: www.cdl.mautech.edu.ng/schoolboard.
Schoolboard –offers a multi-channel platform for you to discuss with content
experts and other learners from across the nation and the globe at large. You may
also use the platform to enrich your learning with engaging webinars, articulate
presentations, smart puzzles, audiobooks, podcasts, interactive gloassaries, smart
quizzes, case studies and discussions. Schoolboard comes with updates and is
accessible on web and on app. It is also linkable from your course CD.
Use of English GST101 — is
this course for you?
GST101 is a compulsory university course.
Course outcomes
Upon completion of Use of English GST101, you will be able to:
 develop basic factual comprehension of what is heard.
Outcomes  appreciate and enjoy certain aspects of spoken discourse.
 answer basic information questions about what is heard.
 comprehend explicit information in spoken discourse (actions,
ideas, reactions, etc.)
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12. About this Course Manual
 comprehend, interpret, appreciate and enjoy spoken discourse
 take note of specific information based on what is heard.
Study Skills
Being a self-learner has become increasingly feasible due to Open and Distance
Learning (ODL) Systems. Studying a course or obtaining a certificate for career
advancement can occur from the comfort of your home, on your own time, and at
your own pace.
You can be a successful higher education student by self learning, it isn't magic!
But it does require desire, dedication and a lot of work. Active listening to your
audiobook, desktop publishing on your laptops, reading comprehension in your
course manual, notetaking in the white margins, stress management, time
management, assessment taking, and memorization are study skills required for a
self learner.
If you really want to learn how to become a successful student, then you should
explore the links that follow:
 http://www.oercommons.org/courses/communication-skills-study-skills-
pdf/view
 http://www.edutechportal.org/resources/studyskills
This is a 15 week course. It requires a formal study time of 12 hours. We recommend you
take an average of one to two hours for an extra personal study on each Study Session. You
can also benefit from online discussions with your course tutor.
Need help?
You may contact via any of the following channels for information, learning
resources and library services.
CDL Student Support Desk
Email: support@cdl.mautech.edu.ng
For technical issues (computer problems, web access, and etcetera), please visit:
www.cdl.mautech.edu.ng/support; or send mail to support@cdl.mautech.edu.ng.
13. GST101 Use of English
Academic Support
A course facilitator is commissioned for this course. You have also been assigned
an academic tutor to provide learning support. See contacts of your course
facilitator and academic advisor at the course website:
www.cdl.mautech.edu.ng/schoolboard
Generally, there are two types of assessment: formative assessment and summative
assessment. With regards to your formative assessment, there are three basic forms
of assessment in the course: in-text questions (SELF-CHECKs), self assessment
questions (SAQs), and tutor marked assessment (TMAs). This manual provides you
with SELF-CHECKs and SAQs. Feedbacks to the SELF-CHECKs are placed
immediately after the questions, while the feedbacks to SAQs are at the rear of
manual.
You will receive your TMAs as assignments at the MAUTECH schoolboard
platform. Some of your TMAs will be graded and will constitute 30 percent of your
course marks. Feedbacks to TMAs will be provided by your tutor in not more than 2
weeks after entries.
Your summative assessment is your final examination. GST101 exam is in multiple
choice / essay format; and it carries 70 percent of your total earning in the course.
Schedule dates for submitting assignments and engaging in course activities is
available on the course website.
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Listening 10
Figure 1.2 Ineffective Listening can Lead to Frustration 11
Table 1.1 Hearing versus Listening 11
Figure 1.5 Active Listening during discussion 14
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14. About this Course Manual
Figure 2.1 Organs of Speech (cc: https://www2.leeward.hawaii.edu) 21
Table 2.1 Monophthongs and Diphthongs 24
Table 2.2 Example of Stress 31
Figure 2.2 Adebola Williams | Speech maker 33
Figure 3.1 Lewis Carrol | A Poet and Writer 36
Figure 4.1 Culture of Egypt kept with Writing (cc: upload.wikimedia.org) 46
Figure 4.2 A Narrative Writing (4.bp.blogspot.com) 48
Figure 4.3 Link between Effective Reading, Comprehension and Effective Summary 50
Figure 5.1 Units of Language 54
Table 3.1 Morphemes 55
Table 11.1 Categories of Personal Pronoun 98
List of Tables
No table of contents entries found.
15. GST101 Use of English
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17. GST101 Use of English
Study Session 1
In all spheres of life, listening is a very useful skill for effective communication.
This is because effective communication requires both the ability to produce well-
articulated speeches as well as the ability to receive messages adequately. This
study session will therefore take you through the techniques and strategies for
effective listening.
Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
1.1 define listening
1.2 highlight types of listening
1.3 describe bad listening
What is Listening?
Language Skill Types of Listening
Bad Listening Habit
This Study Session requires a one hour of formal study time. You may spend an
additional two hours for revision.
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18. Study Session 1 Language Skill (Listening)
Terminologies
is to give one's attention to sound. Listening involves complex affective,
cognitive, and behavioural processes. Affective processes include the motivation to
attend to others; cognitive processes include attending to, understanding, receiving,
and interpreting content and relational messages; and behavioural processes include
responding with verbal and nonverbal feedback. Listening differs from obeying. A
person who receives and understands information or an instruction, and then
chooses not to comply with it or to agree to it, has listened to the speaker, even
though the result is not what the speaker wanted. Listening is a term in which the
listener listens to the one who produced the sound to be listened.
International Listening Association defines listening as the process of receiving,
constructing meaning from and responding to spoken and/or non-verbal messages.
It is also a conscious process by which we seek to understand and retain aural
stimuli for a future use. In the definition above, there are three key points you
should note. These are:
19. GST101 Use of English
1. Process of receiving,
2. Constructing meaning from spoken/non-verbal messages, and
3. Responding to spoken/non-verbal messages.
These three points present listening as involving several actions, interactions and
reactions, moving from the point of hearing, through interpretation, through
attention, through retention to recall. In addition, listening helps you to make sense
out of a message before communicating it to someone else. A good listener must be
able to accurately receive and interpret messages in a communication process. As a
good listener, you should be able to give feedback to someone else on the content
you have listened to. Therefore, listening is a key skill to all effective
communication. When you do not listen effectively, messages are easily
misunderstood, resulting in communication breakdown. This may even make the
sender of the message easily frustrated or irritated.
It is important for you to be able to differentiate between and listening
because they are terms that cannot be used interchangeably. The differences are
illustrated in the table below:
Hearing Versus Listening
Hearing is a natural and passive process Listening is an active, deliberate and
which requires little or no conscious effort conscious process.
Hearing is not a mental process Listening is an active mental process.
Hearing requires less energy Listening requires huge energy
While hearing is superficial Listening is profound.
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20. Study Session 1 Language Skill (Listening)
o

At this stage, you need to know that listening is a linear process. The three basic
steps in listening are hearing, understanding and judging as discussed below.
1. Hearing: means knowing that a sound is being made using your ear. It is the
first step in listening. You cannot listen without the ability to hear.
2. : is the step that deals with your ability to comprehend what
the speaker said. As a listener, you should understand what is said in your own
way which must not be in conflict with the speaker’s intention.
Understanding is a psychological process related to an abstract or physical object, such as a
person, situation, or message whereby one is able to think about it and use concepts to deal
adequately with that object.
3. : is when you evaluate what has been said. After you are sure you
have comprehended what the speaker said, you need to think about whether it
makes sense to you or not.
o

21. GST101 Use of English
There are three goals you should often set in listening. Your listening goals should
state what you personally would like to gain during and after receiving a particular
message. These goals are:
1. Listening to understand ideas: When you listen to understand ideas, you listen
to main ideas or central concepts. You then identify key words and phrases that
will help you to accurately summarize the concepts being discussed.
2. Listening to retain information: This involves focusing your attention on
messages and then learning how to make sure that what you heard is retained.
To retain information, you need certain tools, these are:
a) Repetition: reproducing verbatim what you have listened to;
b) Paraphrase: restating what someone has said in your own words and
c) Visualization: forming a picture about what you have heard in your mind.
3. Listening to analyze and evaluate conflicts: Your ability to analyze and
evaluate what you have listened to calls for a greater skill than retention. When
you listen to analyze and evaluate conflicts effectively, you become skillful at
identifying fallacies or falsehood in the arguments and statements you
encounter in communication.
o

We have been discussing what listening is all about in the last section. At this stage,
we need to know the types of listening that exists. Broadly speaking, listening can
be categorised into two types; active and passive listening.
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22. Study Session 1 Language Skill (Listening)
When you engage in active listening, you are listening with a purpose. In other
words, you engage all your senses, attitudes, thoughts, feelings and intentions in the
communication process. It is important for you to know that all successful
communicators and learners generally require because it is
employed to comprehend, extract information and evaluate facts and opinions.
Purposive active listening is:
1. Serious Listening- is a form of active, purposeful and goal-directed listening. Here,
you give rapt attention to what is being said. By its very nature, serious listening
requires a lot of concentration, attention, selectivity and mental processing.
2. Critical Listening – is when you listen to speeches in order to distinguish between
facts and opinions or logical and emotional arguments. This type of listening
involves evaluating as well as analysing the ideas being listened to. iii.
Discriminative Listening – entails listening to draw out the main purpose of a text
in order to remember essential parts of the message. To achieve this, you need
sound knowledge of word discrimination and association. This helps you to use
context clues to find meanings of words as well as relate details of the message to
the main points.
3. Social listening – Social listening is appreciative and conversational in nature. It is
when you give total attention to the communicative process. Therefore, social
listening is employed in dialogues, chit-chats, conversations, friendly
arguments/discussions, gossips and others.
When you engage in passive listening, you have little or no personal involvement in
the communication process. This is the type of listening which you engage in when
you are present in a discussion in which you are not really involved.
23. GST101 Use of English
For example, an apprentice technician who joins the audience in an inaugural lecture
will listen passively. He will just manage to listen to the sounds; he will not be able to
identify meaningfully the spoken signals, least of all correctly interpret what is being
said.
You must note that passive listening is a negative listening behaviour. It is,
however, unavoidable and beyond the listener’s control in some instances.
o

You should know that different individuals exhibit certain attitudes that negatively
affect listening. These are behaviours which have the tendency to create
misinterpretation or total loss of information that could be important to you. You
can train yourself to lose your bad listening habits and enhance the good ones. The
following are the bad listening habits. You should identify some that you have and
make conscious effort to correct them.
Many listeners conclude that the speech is uninteresting even before listening to it.
When you have convinced yourself that the topic is uninteresting, you will be
discouraged from making sense out of what is being said. A good listener will take
time to listen to a topic even if it sounds uninteresting. You may discover that the
topic, though uninteresting to you, may surprisingly turn out to be useful.
There is always a tendency for one to mentally criticize the speaker’s manner of
presentation or appearance. For example, you claim the voice is too soft, loud or
that the dressing is inappropriate, etc. These criticisms make it difficult for you as a
listener to absorb what is being said. Therefore, you need to concentrate on what
the speaker is saying so as to get the message. Always remember that the form in
which a message is presented is not as important as the content of the message.
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24. Study Session 1 Language Skill (Listening)
Sometimes, we disagree with what a speaker has said and rather than keep listening
to them, we get carried away, building our counter argument and formulating
questions in our mind to ask the speaker after the delivery. We therefore miss the
additional comments and lose other important points. This drops our listening
efficacy to nearly zero because of over-stimulation. You must always listen to the
complete presentation of a speaker before drawing conclusion about it.
It is ideal to identify the facts in what you listen to. However, in the course of doing
this, you must not miss the primary ideas being passed across by the speaker.
Therefore, while listening, do not isolate the facts because they are only meaningful
within the primary ideas.
Some listeners, especially at lectures and talks, outline all that is said. You must
develop different styles of outlining for different speakers. Some speakers are
logical in their presentation while some are not. It is good for you to identify the
speaker’s method for your benefit.
Many listeners fake attention by nodding or staring at the speaker while delivering
their message. Their eyes are on them but their minds are miles away. This is
probably one of the most common bad listening habits. As a listener, you need to
identify your faking habit and eliminate it.
When you whisper or listen to someone whispering to you in an audience of
listeners, you are creating distraction or tolerating distraction. You should avoid
falling into this category of listeners because doing so will distract you as well as
other listeners in the audience.
Most listeners have a tendency to listen only to things that are easy to comprehend,
avoiding things that are more difficult. You should always concentrate on all
aspects of a communication process without selectively giving more attention to
what is simpler and easier to comprehend.
25. GST101 Use of English
Some words have emotional impact on some listeners. For instance, a child who
has no parents may be emotional when the word “orphan” is mentioned in a
discussion. You should not allow emotional words distract your attention in the
course of listening.
o

In conclusion, making conscious effort to identify these bad habits and avoid them would
enhance your listening skill.
In this study session, we discussed listening. We started by looking at the different meanings of listening.
Thereafter, we highlighted the different types of listening that human display. We concluded the session by
describing what a bad listening habit means and how to control it.
Abu believe listening is all about just hearing. But since you know better, can you tell Abu what listening really
What do you understand by purposive active listening?
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26. Study Session 1 Language Skill (Listening)
Describe 3 types of listening habits.
Articulate Presentation
This is a complimentary resource to facilitate the quick delivery of this session. It is available in your course pack
(Schoolboard disc / online page), and also linked here.
Access your schoolboard app, or visit www.schoolboard.edutechportal.org/introductiontomicroeconomics to
access updated online activities and resources related to the units of this Study Session.
27. GST101 Use of English
Study Session 2
Human beings differ basically from animals because they can speak. The possession
and use of language to communicate is exclusive to human beings. This study
session therefore introduces you to the sounds of English, stress and intonation, as
well as skills of effective speaking, with a view to enabling the learner speak
intelligible English.
Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
2.1 describe the sounds of English
Consonants
Vowels
The Sounds of
Language Skill Stress
English
Intonationation
Speech making
This Study Session requires a one hour of formal study time. You may spend an
additional two hours for revision.
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28. Study Session 2 Language Skill (Speaking)
Terminologies
It is essential for you to know the importance of the sounds human beings produce
to make meaning. is a process of constructing meaningful sounds. It is a
stage in the communication process of producing, receiving and processing
information. It is a means by which information is encoded orally into a linguistic
form or code for transmission to a decoder. The encoder is the speaker while the
decoder is the listener. Speaking is a productive skill because it involves the
production of meaningful sounds for the reception of the listener who must also be
proficient in the language in which the message is encoded.
Pronunciation is one area where most non-native speakers of English encounter problems.
You must have observed, as speakers of English, that some of the sounds of
Standard English are not found in the Nigerian languages. You therefore have a
tendency to substitute sounds in your native languages for such sounds for ease of
production.
Let us proceed to study the sound units of English in the webinar that follows.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xiqUVnXExTQ
Now, let us look at some of the speech sounds.
29. GST101 Use of English
are those sounds in the production of which there is a total or partial
blockage of the airstreams at some point in the vocal tract. There are twenty-four
consonants in English, comprising fifteen voiced and nine voiceless consonants.
Voiced Consonants A consonant is said to be voiced when its production is
accompanied by the vibration of the vocal cords.
Voiceless Consonants > A consonant is said to be voiceless when there is no such
vibration of the vocal cords during its production.
Look and Pronounce
Look at the following words, the emphasis is on the underlined
letters. Try to pronounce each of those words.
================================================
/p/ as in pen, pray, apple, drop
/b/ as in bat, blame, rubber, bride
/t/ as in top, ten, kettle, laughed
/d/ as in day, drug, ladder, lad
/k/ as in cat, quay, bacon, quick
/g/ as in grow, grass, figure, plague
/f/ as in farm, form, trophy, rough
/v/ as in vat, vice, reveal, carve
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30. Study Session 2 Language Skill (Speaking)
/ө/as in thin, thick, method, path
/ð / as in that, then, father, clothe
/s/ as in see, sword, receive, maps
/z/as in zoo, zip, frozen, lads
/∫/ as in shoe, sheep, machine, wash
/ Ʒ / as in treasure, measure, prestige
/h/ as in hat, hoe, behave
/ ʧ / as in chair, cheap, nature, watch
/ ʤ / as in judge, adjust, passage
/m/ as in man, armour, tomb, comb
/n/ as in not, kneel, annual, button
/ ŋ/ as in language, bring, hang
/l/ as in let, lame, select, cruel
/r/ as in right, wreck, sorry, vary
/w/ as in one, we, quick, upward
/j/ as in you, university, new huge
=================================================
Consonant Discrimination
Some English sounds have very similar pronunciations. Yet, they connote different
meanings. We need to know and practise these sounds so as to use them
discriminatorily. E.g. pin and bin are only differentiated by /p/ and /b/ but pin does
not have the same meaning as bin. Let us look at some of those words that sound
alike but have different meaning
/p/ /b/
pan ban
plays blaze
prank brand
peak beak
cramp crab
/ʧ/ /ʤ/
etch edge
31. GST101 Use of English
churn John
picture pageant
patch page
catch cage
Words that Sound Alike
Can you now write out some of the words that sound alike but have
different meaning?
You should be able to present some of the following:
/l/ /r/
allowed aroused
lap wrap
allay array
light write
long wrong
/w/ /j/
weed yield
woke yoke
warn yawn
wonder yonder
wood youth
o
ɔ ɒ ɜ ə
ɔ ɩ ɔɪ ɪ
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32. Study Session 2 Language Skill (Speaking)
ɪə ə ɪа

ɔ
ɔɪ
ə
English are in two broad groups: pure vowels (monophthongs) and
diphthongs. Monophthongs are those vowels produced with single vowel nucleus.
There are twelve of them. Diphthongs are produced with double vowel nuclei; that
is, in the production of a diphthong, the tongue moves from one vowel position to
another. There are eight diphthongs in English. In summary, there are twenty vowel
sounds in English.
Monophthongs Diphthongs
/i:/ in as in leave, seat, foetus, quay /eI / as in day, hate, fail, tail
/I/ as in live, sit, city, women, / ∂ʊ / as in so, foe, toe, soul
message
/aI/ as in high, die, tie, sky
/e/ as in egg, bed, guest, leopard,
bury / aʊ / as in house, how howl, allow
/æ/ as in axe, mad, back, tap /ɔI / as in boil, toil, boy, joy
/a:/ as in hard, park, aunt, heart
/I∂/ as in tear, near, deer, cheer
/ ɒ / as in odd, yacht, sausage,
/e∂/ as in share, fare, fair, where
cough
/ ɔ: / as in ore, oar, court, board / ʊ∂/ as in poor, moor, tour, sure
/ ʊ / as in full, pull, good, could
/u: / as in fool, pool, fruit, move
/ ʌ / as in sun, son, bus, fun, love
/3:/ as in earn, serve, work, purse
/∂/ as in about, writer, actor, famous
Vowel sound discrimination:
Read and Pronounce
33. GST101 Use of English
/i/ /i:/ /e/
Sit seat set
Bit beat bet
Tin teen ten
Bid bead bed
Pit Pleats pet
/æ/ / a:/
cat cart
pat part
fat fart
hat heart
pack park
/ʊ/ /u:/
pull pool
cook cool
soot suit
stood stool
brook broom
/ɒ/ /ɔ:/
pot port
don dawn
ton torn
con corn
cot caught
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34. Study Session 2 Language Skill (Speaking)
/ / /з:/
upper usurper
cub curb
such search
judge church
mulch merge
The / Ə / sound called schwa is an important vowel in the English Language.
However, it is the least used sound in Nigerian English! It only occurs in unstressed
syllables and most English vowels weaken to it when the stress is removed from
them. This makes it the most frequently occurring sound of English. The sound can
be practised by looking at a set of English vowels that use stress to change from
nouns to verbs or adjectives.
Note that when there is stress on the syllable, it does not contain a schwa vowel. However,
when stress shifts away from that syllable to another syllable, the strong vowel it had before
would change to schwa. E.g absent / bs nt/ / / bsent/.
/Ə/
Noun Verb or Adjective
'absent ab'sent
'rebel re'bel
'project pro'ject
'pervert per'vert
'conduct con'duct
'contest con'test
'produce pro'duce
'object ob'ject
35. GST101 Use of English
/eI/ /aI/
pay pie
gay guy
pray pry
tape type
claim climb
/əʊ / /aʊ /
no now
tone town
load loud
chair cheer
hoe how
/eə/ /Iə/
fare fear
mare mere
dare deer
chair cheer
there dear
/ɔI/ / ʊƏ/
boyish boorish
coin cure
join juror
toiling tourist
Vowel Sound Discrimination:
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36. Study Session 2 Language Skill (Speaking)
Short and Long Vowels
Short Vowels Long Vowels
sit seat
fill feel
pat part
ban barn
pull pool
could cooed
cot court
pot port
wed word
cod curd
o

37. GST101 Use of English
More sound discrimination
wad ward word
ton torn turn
won worn worm
cod cord curd
Silent letters
Some letters of English words are often not pronounced in particular contexts.
While some are easily mastered by learners of English, others are quite challenging.
Let us take a look at some of the letters and practise how to make them silent.
Pronounce:
Letters Examples of words with silent letters
B bomb dumb tomb comb debt
C muscle
D handkerchief sandwich Wednesday
G champagne foreign sign feign
H hour honest honour heir
L calm half talk would should
N autumn hymn
P psychology receipt pneumonia
S isle island
T castle Christmas fasten listen often
U guess guidance guest
In addition to mastering the sound units of English, you should also understand
, an important feature of the English language. Simply put, stress is the
prominence assigned to a particular syllable of a word which makes it stand out
from the other syllables. A stressed syllable is produced with greater muscular
energy and perceived as being longer and louder than the unstressed one. In
English, a word that contains more than one syllable will have one of the syllables
29
38. Study Session 2 Language Skill (Speaking)
bear what we call the primary stress. Also, in English, the primary stress is indicated
by a stroke occurring up before the syllable that carries the stress.
For Example:
1. ex'port (verb) 'export (noun)
2. con'tract (verb) 'contract (noun)
3. im'port (verb) 'import(noun)
4. re'bel (verb) 'rebel (noun)
Secondary stress, on the other hand, is placed below and before the secondarily
stressed syllable e.g. edu'cation. As it is the case in the examples cited, stress is
used to distinguish between words with the same spellings, but which belong to
different word classes. In addition to this function, stress can also be used for
emphasis.
For Example:
I saw 'him. ('him' is emphasized)
'I saw him. ('I' is emphasized)
I 'saw him. ('saw' is emphasized)
It is not easy determining which syllable is to be stressed in a polysyllabic English
word. However, if you regularly consult a good dictionary that indicates how a
word is to be pronounced, you should be able to overcome the problem. Listening to
audiobooks of English sound experts can also be helpful to you.
Now, try to pronounce the following words:
ex'port (verb) 'export (noun) con'tract (verb) 'contract (noun) im'port (verb) 'import
(noun) re'bel (verb), 'rebel (noun)
In the examples cited above, stress is used to distinguish between words with the
same spellings which belong to different word classes. In addition to this function,
stress can also be used for emphasis.
For example:
E.g. I saw 'him ('him' emphasised)
I 'saw him ('saw' emphasised)
'I saw him (' I' emphasised)
In English, there is no rule regarding which syllable of a word is to be stressed. For
instance, you cannot say always stress the first, second or third syllable. Hence,
when you learn a new English word, always check its stress pattern.
Try to note the capitalized letters in the table below.
39. GST101 Use of English
Contestant Afternoon Diligent Colonial education
January Impossible Depend Helicopter occupation
Educate PHOtograph BEAUtiful unfortunate captivity
Canteen Referee aSSIstant Maroon university
Commercial Grammarian NiGErian emancipation eROsion
[
o

refers to the variation in the pitch level of the voice. When we speak,
our voice does not remain at one level; it goes up and down and this phenomenon
simply refers to intonation. This variation is not random but depends on the type of
sentence i.e. whether it is a statement or question; the attitude of the speaker to what
is being said or to the listener. In English, there are different intonation tunes such
as falling, rising, and falling-rising.
The falling tune is basically used for declaratives, commands and “wh”-questions,
e.g.:
1. This is a good boy. (declarative)
2. Get out of this place. (command)
3. Where are you going? (Wh-question)
Usually, utterances that are made with the falling intonation tune can be made with
the rising tune to indicate warmth, excitement, etc. Also with intonation, a
declarative statement can be turned into a question.
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40. Study Session 2 Language Skill (Speaking)
What is Intonation?
In this webinar, a facilitator explains to you how to stress English words and assign
appropriate intonation tunes. Access the instructional video of the webinar here:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tzh3Owutf5Y
Note the following from the foregoing webinar:
 Intonation is the variation in the pitch level of the voice.
 This variation is not random but depends on the type of sentence.
 There are different intonation tunes such as falling, rising, and falling-rising.
 The falling tune is basically used for declaratives, commands and wh-questions.
 The rising tune is used to ask polar questions (i.e. yes/no questions) make requests and
reflect a doubtful attitude.
You need to be familiar with stress and intonation as important features of the English language
to be able to speak English well or use it for academic purpose.
Functions of Intonation
In English, intonation performs grammatical and attitudinal functions, among others.
Grammatical Function
Utter statements with falling tune.
Change statements to questions with a rising tune.
Ask Yes/No questions with rising tune.
Ask wh-questions with falling tune.
Attitudinal Function
Make requests with rising tune.
Give commands with falling tune.
Show boredom with flat tune.
Show indifference with a low-rising tune.
Show excitement with a high rising tune.
Show finality with a falling tune.
(a) He has come. (a statement) Falling intonation
(b) He has come? (a question) Raising intonation
41. GST101 Use of English
It is good for you to know that speaker’s skills and habits determine the
success of any communication. As an effective speaker therefore, you need to be
able to pass your message clearly and appropriately according to purpose and
audience.
You also need to understand the topic you have to speak on very well. This could be
achieved through research. Thorough research will guide you in planning what to
say in advance and consequently build your confidence since you would have been
well equipped for the task. There is a tendency for a speaker who is unfamiliar with
his material to get nervous. You should therefore practise your speech or
presentation several times before the time. You also need to decide beforehand how
to structure your presentation because a good presentation needs an introduction,
body and a conclusion. The introduction will ‘tell your audience what you are going
to tell them’; the body will ‘tell them' and the conclusion will succinctly ‘tell them
again'.
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33
42. Study Session 2 Language Skill (Speaking)
In this Study session, we have discussed how to produce the sounds of English, how to apply stress
appropriately and assign intonation tunes correctly. We have also looked at how to make and deliver
excellent speeches.
Discuss, at least, three speech sounds in English that you know.
Articulate Presentation
This is a complimentary resource to facilitate the quick delivery of this session. It is available in your course pack
(Schoolboard disc / online page), and also linked here.
Access your schoolboard app, or visit www.schoolboard.edutechportal.org/introductiontomicroeconomics to
access updated online activities and resources related to the units of this Study Session.
43. GST101 Use of English
Study Session 3
This study session is on reading, an important skill we need to be proficient in as a
student. It is basic to learning, and it is one of the most important skills required to
be functional in a literate society. Reading provides the key to all kinds of
information.
Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
3.1 describe reading
3.2 list different types of reading
3.3 differentiate between sentence analysis and comprehension
3.4 explain bad reading habit
What is Reading?
Methods of Reading
Language Skill
(Reading) Sentence Analysis
and Sentence
Comprehension
Bad Reading Habits
This Study Session requires a one hour of formal study time. You may spend an
additional two hours for revision.
35
44. Study Session 3 Language Skill (Reading)
Terminologies
Before we engage in any serious discussion, let us first ask ourselves; what is
Reading? Simply put, reading is a multifaceted process involving word recognition,
comprehension, fluency, and motivation. Reading is making meaning from print. It
requires that we:
1. Identify the words in print – a process called word recognition
2. Construct an understanding from them – a process called comprehension
3. Coordinate identifying words and making meaning so that reading is automatic
and accurate – an achievement called
Sometimes you can make meaning from print without being able to identify all the
words. Remember the last time you got a note in messy handwriting? You may have
understood it, even though you couldn't decipher all the . Sometimes you
can identify words without being able to construct much meaning from them.
Read the opening lines of Lewis Carroll's poem, "Jabberwocky," and you'll see what I
mean:
'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:
All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.
Finally, sometimes you can identify words and comprehend them, but if the
processes don't come together smoothly, reading will still be a laboured process. For
example, try reading the following sentence:
45. GST101 Use of English
It isn't as if the words
are difficult to identify or
understand, but the spaces
make you pause between
words, which means your
reading is less fluent.
Reading in its fullest sense involves weaving together word recognition and
comprehension in a fluent manner. These three processes are complex, and each is
important. How complex? Here goes?
In the simplest sense, reading means recognising letters and groups of letters as
symbols which stand for particular sounds. The sounds in turn form words that
express ideas in written or printed form. It involves how well the reader remembers,
uses and reacts to the material. The ability to read and write is called literacy, and a
person who can read is said to be literate. A person who cannot read is illiterate.
Reading plays an essential role in the daily lives of most people. To survive in the
literate world today, you need to be able to read road signs, maps, labels on
medicine bottles, directions for operating new appliances, etc. The ability to
perform all such useful activities is sometimes called functional reading or
functional literacy. A special kind of functional literacy is . This
is very important to students. University students must read to gain an
understanding of a wide variety of topics. Learner literacy also requires the ability
to read special kinds of materials, including charts, graphs, maps and tables. People
learn throughout their lives, and so such reading skills remain very useful even after
a person has completed school. Another kind of functional literacy is
. This involves the ability to read written materials necessary for doing a
job. This is one way that a person's ability to read directly influences job success.
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37
46. Study Session 3 Language Skill (Reading)
There basically two types of Reading. They are the intensive and extensive reading.
1. Intensive Reading: This involves a close examination of the text to get the full
meaning. This type of reading is that which one does for detail and analysis
when one is aware that the material will have to be later recalled, recast,
discussed and evaluated. It is often necessary to read and re-read the passage
and pause to check up the meaning of some words or concepts. Comprehension
is highly paramount for this kind of reading.
2. Extensive Reading: In extensive reading, the reader develops the habit of
reading for pleasure which involves the ability to read quickly. This is often
enjoyable since the reader does not have to struggle through the material. This
rapid silent reading is also essential for assignments which involve reference
work.
o

Some students tend to read slowly and laboriously because of uncertainty of what
they are expected to learn from their reading assignments. Their uncertainty is
increased when they are given tests which require accurate recall of minute details.
You need to develop the ability to locate main ideas if you are to read with better
comprehension. The two components of reading efficiency are the ability to read
fast and the ability to comprehend the message. The speed at which you read a
particular material depends on the level of difficulty of the material being read as
well as your ability and background knowledge.
Types of reading speed are listed below:
1. Study Reading Speed: This is the slowest reading speed, and it is used for
difficult materials.
2. Average Reading Speed: This is what students do most of the time. Average
reading speed is useful for extensive reading. Extensive reading involves
47. GST101 Use of English
reading rapidly for information as fast as possible and reading as many books
or materials within the shortest time.
3. Skimming and Scanning: These techniques require very fast reading rate and
differ significantly from regular or rapid reading in that not all the contents of
the material is actually read. Skim whenever you want to get a general idea of a
book’s content.
For example, a reader should skim to decide whether a book might be a useful reference
source. Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly across a line or down a page to locate
particular information. Look for key words or phrases that indicate you are close to the
information you need. When you locate such a word, stop scanning and read slowly.
o
o
As a student, you need to understand the key words of this section, reading and
, and their interrelatedness. Reading involves making visual
contact with letters or groups of letters of alphabet and relating them to the sounds
of the language which they represent. Comprehension involves making meaning out
of the relationship between letters and sounds on the one hand, and between the
sounds and what they refer to in the physical and social environment of the
language on the other. Making meaning or comprehension involves recognizing
what the words and sentences of the text say. You can know this through your own
general knowledge or knowledge of the subject. In addition, this is also possible
through the text being read and your knowledge of the language in which the text is
written.
Effective comprehension involves interpreting the message according to the circumstances or
the contexts that shape the writer's knowledge and your experience as a reader.
39
48. Study Session 3 Language Skill (Reading)
Read the following paragraph and answer the questions
following it:
However, the best kind of honey is the original one with reduced
sugar content. The traditional way to identify original honey,
according to Ahjia Sambo is that it sinks to the bottom of the
container when poured in water. Another way is to rub it on the head
of a matchstick and set it ablaze. If it is real, it will catch fire
immediately.
Question 1: According to the paragraph, how can one identify
original honey?
Feedback:
By dropping it in water or rubbing it on the head of a matchstick and
setting it ablaze.
Question 2: ‘…the original one with reduced sugar content’
What is the grammatical name given to the expression above?
Feedback
Noun phrase
Question 3: What is its function as it is used in the sentence?
Feedback
Functions as the complement of the subject
It is important for us to know that the sentence is an essential basic unit of meaning
and therefore of comprehension. The sentence brings various items of information
to the paragraph. Each sentence contributes some aspects of the meaning of the
paragraph. It is possible for you to understand the words of a sentence without
really understanding what the sentence means. This may happen where the sentence
is long and complex or complicated. To fully understand a sentence, a number of
techniques can be adopted. Take a look at the following:
You should analyse the sentence for its focus or theme. Your focus should be on
content. Main clauses provide some focus of meaning. Subordinate clauses provide
some circumstances modifying the meaning derived from the main clause.
49. GST101 Use of English
Consider this sentence, for example:
He left when we asked him to go.
The main clause supplied the fact that he left while the subordinate clause supplies the
time he left
Punctuation marks can provide some clues to meaning within a sentence. Notice the
difference in meaning between the following two sentences:
1. The man, whom I met, is your brother.
2. The man whom I met is your brother.
The two sentences can be interpreted as follows:
1. The man is your brother. I met him.
2. The man is your brother. It was him I met and no one else.
Some words or phrases function as signal devices or connectors within sentences,
between sentences and between paragraphs. Wherever they are present, you must
note that they point to certain directions of meaning. Some of these words and
phrases are provided in the table below.
Direction of
Words/word group
meaning
Addition
and, as well as, besides, not only…but also, in addition, also,
etc.
despite, but, in spite of, though, etc. Contrast
Comparison
in the same way, like, unlike, in the same vein, etc.
until, if, when, unless, in as much as Condition
because, as a result, hence, due to Cause/effect relations
41
50. Study Session 3 Language Skill (Reading)
Read the following paragraph and answer the questions after it:
…………… We used to visit them and they used to welcome us. In
addition, they prepared very good meals because they were naturally
hospitable. However, we stopped visiting them because their mother
took our father’s land………..
Identify the connectors and signal devices in the paragraph and
indicate their meaning direction.
Feedback
The connectors and signal devices in the paragraph are:
1. In addition – addition
2. Because - cause/effect relations
3. However – contrast
4. Because - cause/effect relations
As there are individual differences, so also we have different bad reading habits.
Some of the bad reading habits can be eliminated fairly easily when identified.
This involves moving the head as the reader follows the words from the left side to
the right side of the page. Such movement slows down the reading speed. Therefore,
while reading, avoid moving your head from left to right.
Do not point to words with your fingers, a ruler, pencil or pen as you read. Besides
slowing down your reading speed, it may cause you to focus your attention on the
wrong information. By pointing to individual words, you are prevented from taking
in whole phrases and sentences, which inhibit your understanding of the writer’s
thoughts and ideas.
This refers to the act of whispering while reading. It is another common fault in
reading. Do not pronounce aloud each word as it is read. tends to tie
reading speed to speaking speed. This adversely affects reading rate and therefore,
comprehension. This is very undesirable in mature readers.
51. GST101 Use of English
Sub-vocalization differs from vocalisation in that the reader does not actually move
any part of the vocal apparatus, but he pronounces the words to himself in his mind.
Excessively slow reading speed is often a clue to some type of vocalisation.
Therefore, train yourself to speed up your reading by avoiding concentrating on the
pronunciation of individual words.
refers to glancing back and re-reading words, phrases and sentences
that one has already read. It is a bad habit which often results from lack of
concentration. All readers make some regressions. However, while good readers
make very few, bad readers make many.
This refers to the way in which the eyes move across the lines of prints. When the
eyes are reading a line of print, they make a series of short movements along the
line, stopping after every one or two words for a very brief pause. Each time the eye
stops, it sees a certain span of material and this span is called the "span of
recognition". Poor readers have a small recognition span in that they can only
recognise one or two words at one glance. You should train yourself to have wider
span of recognition so as to be able to take several words per eye fixation.
Inadequate brain development, vision or hearing defects can cause reading
deficiencies. However, they account for only a small percentage of all reading
problems. This might be beyond a reader to correct. In this case, professional
attention should be sought.
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43
52. Study Session 3 Language Skill (Reading)
In this study session, we have discussed about reading, how to differentiate the types of reading, methods of
reading, reading and comprehension, sentence analysis and comprehension, as well as how to identify and
eliminate bad reading habits.
Abu is an extensive reader while Taila is an intensive reader. Can you explain these two?
As explained in the study session, there are basically two types of reading skills. Can you discuss the two?
Why do you think sentences should be analysed?
Can you discuss at least three bad reading habits that you know?
Articulate Presentation
This is a complimentary resource to facilitate the quick delivery of this session. It is available in your course pack
(Schoolboard disc / online page), and also linked here.
Access your schoolboard app, or visit www.schoolboard.edutechportal.org/introductiontomicroeconomics to
access updated online activities and resources related to the units of this Study Session.
53. GST101 Use of English
Study Session 4
In this study session, we will be exposed to the strategies for developing effective
writing skills. As a writer, we must first of all be definite about the goal of our
writing assignment and the type of writing we want to embark upon. Thus, we need
to plan, choose a topic, narrow the topic and prepare a dominant thesis or thesis
statement.
Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
4.1 define writing
4.2 highlight types of writing
4.3 discuss summary writing
What is Writing?
Language Skill
Types of Writing
(Writing)
Summary Writing
This Study Session requires a one hour of formal study time. You may spend an
additional two hours for revision.
Terminologies
45