This booklet serves as a foundation for understanding the earliest form of technical instruction in colonial America. It is a synthesis of historical studies that have addressed the education of indentured servants and apprentices in colonial America. It defines indentured servitude and contrasts it with an apprenticeship—a form of indentured service.
1. The Education of Indentured Servants in Colonial America 65 The Journal of Technology Studies By Mark R. Snyder Abstract tion even as it exists in modern society. It pres- This article serves as a foundation for ents a general overview of circumstances that understanding the earliest form of technical have influenced the instruction of “technics” instruction in colonial America. It is a synthesis throughout the past and provides a foundation of historical studies that have addresses the edu- for understanding how technology education has cation of indentured servants and apprentices in evolved. This is accomplished by identifying colonial America. It defines indentured servi- numerous resources and providing a synthesis of tude and contrasts it with apprenticeship—a prior historiographical efforts. Since this review form of indentured service. The paper addresses cites period sources, in unedited form, some how indentured servitude in colonial America words appear in their original spelling. became established and how those who were employed through such means fared. Primary Introduction emphasis is on the education that indentured Indentured servitude was a critical institu- servants and apprentices would have received tion in the development of the American and how that varied by time periods and regions. colonies primarily because a large number of This manuscript reveals that three general people were needed to occupy colonial America. changes occurred: 1) from the adaptation of There were many changes made in the system traditional practices from England to support of indentured servitude and many differences in agricultural labor in the early colonial period, 2) the regional application of indentured servitude through a transition period caused by slavery within the American colonies throughout the (primarily in the south) and an increased need period. There were also distinct changes in the for apprentices in skilled trades (primarily in the relationship between education and indentured north), and 3) until the late colonial period when servitude. Initially, there was little interest in education was emerging as a value that would the education or training of indentured servants. help America succeed in its independence. When native-born children began entering the system as apprentices, the master became the Preface primary source for a basic education. Finally, Technology is a topic that should be as schools developed, the role of master as an addressed in educating the youth of the United educator as decreased to its vocational aspect. States. Historically, there have been differing views regarding the need for instruction of When researching the topic of indentured technical processes. Yet, throughout the past, servitude in colonial America, it is easy to numerous systems and methods have been develop a skewed impression of this practice. devised to achieve this goal. More recently, Many historians who mention the indenture sys- various disciplines have recognized technology tem typically paint a simple picture of an indi- as an integral part of their fields. Specifically, vidual who happily worked for another man the broader study of technology has been until his term was served and he would become accepted as the primary motive for the profes- self-reliant. Specific studies that focus exclu- sion of technology education. sively on the lives of indentured servants in colonial America will describe a variety of situa- This article can help students who are tions in which a person might have become an preparing for careers in technology education indentured servant, served their indenture, been to establish a historical background for better treated during that period of indenture, and fared understanding the field in which they aspire to after the indenture was completed. Thus, it become teachers. The primary purpose of this would not be accurate to stereotype indentured study is to provide a historical account of one servants into one simple image. of the earliest forms of technical learning in America. It also describes the practice of inden- It is also important to point out that the tured technical instruction as a system utilized terms indentured servant and apprentice are by the colonists and how it helped shape educa- closely related but, in fact, have slightly
2. different meanings—particularly when referred grew larger, and trade increased, so did the need 66 to in the history of colonial America. An inden- for labor. This need was met through indentured ture is a contract that binds a person to work for servitude and was greatest in the colonies from The Journal of Technology Studies another for a given length of time. An apprentice Pennsylvania south. The New England colonies is a person under such a legal agreement that were more likely to use the labor of freemen and works for a master craftsman in return for apprentices rather than indentured servants until instruction in a specific trade and, formally, later in the colonial period. support. Many of those who came to the American colonies already knew a trade, such Indentured servants throughout the colonies as farming, but could not afford the cost of the were either voluntary or coerced by legal author- journey across the Atlantic. Thus, they would ity. Those who became indentured servants of agree to an indenture that bound them to a their own accord were reasonably well treated wealthy planter for a few years and then be and had similar rights to the freemen before the released to make a living themselves. In this law. However, their indentures could be bought example, the indentured servant was not an or sold without their consent. Otherwise, they apprentice, per se, because he already knew his could trade, own property, provide testimony in trade. In contrast, an apprentice also usually court and were provided special laws to protect was bound by a contact and thus considered them from abuse (Ballagh, 1895, p. 44). The indentured. Only the institution of apprentice- length of time that voluntary servants were ship combined technical education and labor bound was typically dependent on the amount with the promise of eventual self-employment. owed for the transportation to the colonies, “usually for from three to five years” (Talpalar, The Early Arrival of Indentured 1960, p. 198). Whatever the length of their Servants servitude, once their indenture was completed Indentured servants probably arrived in the liberated servants expected to receive the America not long after the first English colony, “freedom dues” that they had earned through Jamestown was established in 1607. “That a very hard work. For the indentured farmer this man should become a bond servant by legal might have included tools, livestock, corn, contract was not strange, for the ancient institu- tobacco, and other necessities for them to start tion of apprenticeship was known to all” (Smith, anew. 1947, p. 13). Galenson (1981) reported that the Virginia Company had put this system to use by Assisted Emigration and Runaways 1620. Alderman (1976) wrote, “around 1624 the The system of indentured servitude was servants began to sign formal indenture” (p. 57). ideal for the “assisted emigration” of undesir- The practice of indentured servitude made it ables. “Of the Scotch prisoners taken at the battle possible for emigrants from many European of Worcester, sixteen hundred and ten were sent nations to journey to the New World and was, to Virginia in 1651 . . . Many of the Scotch indeed, a common practice that was vital to the prisoners of Dunbar and the rebels of 1666 were economy and social development of colonial sent to New England and the other plantations.” America. Also, the social climate in England at this time was rather volatile due to overpopulation; there- Those who could not afford passage to the fore “in 1661 . . . power was given to Justices New World often pledged service to a colony in of the Peace to transport felons, beggars and dis- exchange for the cost of the trip and the board- orderly persons” (Talpalar, 1960, pp. 299-300). ing fees accrued through the duration of the Even the trade companies got into the act by indenture. In fact, the large majority of immi- negotiating with other countries for the trade grants to the Chesapeake colonies of Maryland of their undesirables. Subagents, or recruiters, and Virginia prior to 1700 were British inden- would also stoop to persuading, or even kidnap- tured servants who served British colonial ping, young or intoxicated victims in order to planters. Wesley F. Craven (1971) approximated turn a profit by selling them into indentures the population of white indentured servants in once in the colonies. This practice was known seventeenth-century Virginia to be perhaps as “spiriting” and those who had been “spirited” three-fourths of the total population and John were indentured according to the “custom of the Pory, a resident of Virginia in 1619, stated, country” which was a method of expediency in “Our principall wealth . . . consisteth in servants” these matters. Others who became indentured (Craven, 1971, p. 13). As farms and plantations
3. involuntarily included felons and debtors already more brutal, and more humiliating status than it within the American colonies. Rather than was in England (p. 53). Although some success 67 imprisoning potential laborers, the Pennsylvania stories exist, the majority of indentured servants The Journal of Technology Studies Council declared it “highly reasonable that lived difficult lives even if they served out their people fitt for Labour, or performing any indentures and became free. Service by which they can earn Money, should by the same Method make Satisfaction for their Poor Provisions for Education just Debts” (Morris, 1946, p. 14). The practice of indentured servitude prior to colonization had been primarily utilized for the In many cases, the outlook for indentured training of youths in specific trades. However, servants was bleak. Morgan (2001) reported that the British colonizers of America molded the during the mid seventeenth-century, “in both traditional form of the indenture system to meet Chesapeake colonies servants were forbidden their needs. The most obvious difference was the to leave their homes without a license or pass” decreased interest in skilled craftsmen in the (p. 20). Involuntary servants had fewer rights system-and the large demand for farmers. To than the voluntary indentured servants and many estimate the occupation of male indentured ser- of them were prone to running away, for which vants in the colonies, Galenson (1981) used the there were a variety of punishments prescribed records of indentured servants registered in by the different colonies. The harshest punish- Bristol, England between 1654-1660, just before ment was in Maryland where a 1639 law stated their journey to the American colonies. What he that runaway servants were to be executed. found was that of the indentured servants regis- Other penalties included extended indentures, tered in Bristol, roughly 30 percent were previ- payment for lost time extracted from the free- ously farmers, 10 percent were textile workers, dom dues, and literally being branded with the 9 percent were laborers, and the rest were a vari- letter “R” (Morgan, 2001, p. 20-21). ety of other occupations (41 percent did not specify an occupation). These records are indeed Many lawmen arrested suspicious charac- valuable, although little is known of the actual ters who could not prove that they were free. registration process or the accuracy of the In 1773, a “gaoler” in New Jersey posted this records. These records also indicated facts such advertisement: as the deterioration of agricultural conditions in England during this period and the destination TAKEN UP and committed to the gaol of these particular Bristol registrants within the of the City of Perth, Amboy, in the county of American colonies—more than half of them Middlesex, in New-Jersey, the 1st of July, 1773, were sent to the colony of Virginia (Craven, an Irish servant man named JOHN RUTLEGE, 1971, p. 17). who confesses he is the servant of one JOHN PATTERSON, of Tinicum township, Bucks Since the majority of indentured servants county, and left his master last month, as men- at this time were laborers and primarily young tioned in the paper of the 7th of June inst. His adults, the education of these early indentured master may have him again by applying to the servants was not considered a high priority. subscriber, and paying the reward for taking him Labor was, in fact, the highest priority. Training, up, and charges. OBADIAH KING, Gaoler usually in husbandry, was the most education (Heavner, 1978, pp. 118-119). that one was likely to gain through indenture. Most training was considered unnecessary, if In Pennsylvania, and most other colonies, we reconsider the example of the English farmer the laws aided the master of a runaway servant who agreed to indentured servitude in order to but recapture was more often the result of offer- pay for his transportation to America. Any ing a reward—a financial burden usually trans- education that an indentured servant received ferred to the unsuccessful runaway servant. was likely the result of self-motivation or some Despite offered rewards, a very large number special arrangement. “German servants often of runaway servants were never recovered entered into indentures providing that they be (Heavner, 1978, p. 116). taught to read the Bible in English” (Smith, 1947, p. 17). Also, the few children that were Overall, the experience of servitude in the in the colonies as indentured servants prior to colonies was dismal. According to Wood (1992), 1650 were probably given the benefits of a very in the colonies, servitude was a much harsher, minimal education. The rate of literacy for the
4. indentured servant population that emigrated the indentured servants, the slaves, and the 68 from England was characteristically low as was poverty-stricken freedmen to engage in cultural evidenced by the large number of men and pursuits or to improve their minds.” The Journal of Technology Studies women who could not sign their names, but rather left their “mark” on their indentures At about the turn of the eighteenth century, (Galenson, 1981). “indentured servitude was retained: but labor ceased to be a value (Talpalar, 1960, p. 322). Change in the Southern and Due to the advent of Feudalism in the Southern Chesapeake Bay/Colonies colonies, the supply of white indentured servants Mary Newton Stanard, in her book Colonial to the tobacco planters had virtually come to a Virginia: Its People and Customs (1917), found standstill. “By 1710, one-fifth of the region’s that of the indentured servants in Virginia for population was black (Norton, 1986, p. 104). As whom records exist (from the year 1625), there black slave trade increased, and slave labor grew were a few that became quite successful. A few in the south, the role of the indentured servant of her examples follow: began to change from primarily agricultural occupations to a wider variety of trade-oriented For instance, Richard Townshend had come jobs. to Virginia when a boy of fifteen, but we know that before long he was apprenticed to Doctor “The apprenticeship program inherited from Pott to be taught to be a physician and apothe- England had the two-fold objective of supplying cary . . . Abraham Wood was brought to Virginia the labor market and providing training in a . . . and in later years became a Major General trade” (Morris, 1946, p. 14). Eventually, a wider of Militia, the greatest Indian trader of his time, variety of trades emerged in which youngsters and a leader in promoting Western exploration . could become apprenticed. Most of the trades . . John Upton . . . who became a burgess, that existed during the later colonial era fell commander of Isle of Wight and mintmaster under general occupational headings. The textile general. (Stanard, 1917, pp. 46-48) processing industry included feltmaking and wool spinning as well as tailoring and hatmaking. The population of the colonies was increas- Dealing or retailing was also considered a trade ing, as was the need for skilled laborers. The that an apprentice might learn. Food processing New England colonies began to compete for vocations such as butchering, baking or brewing the labor of indentured servants and after about were also plentiful during this time. Leather 1700, the Chesapeake Bay colonies could not processing included the skills of tanning, curry- obtain, through traditional methods, the labor ing, and saddlemaking. Metal trades included force required to maintain the growth of the smithing of all sorts, while the wood and con- plantation economy. The arrival of the Cavaliers struction trades such as carpentry, joinery, in Virginia had brought about a change in the masonry, plastering, wheelwrighting, and societal hierarchy of the colony (Stanard, 1917, shipbuilding were also quite common (Davies, p. 40). 1956, pp. 64-77). These are only a few examples of the many specialized trades for an apprentice. The Cavaliers were formerly known as the Royalists, a political party that left England Growth of Apprenticeship in the around 1650, following England’s Civil War and Middle and New England Colonies the execution of Charles I. As they settled into While indentured servitude through migra- Virginia, it was evident that their ideas differed tion decreased gradually, the number of children from the traditional Puritan views on land and born to the colonists in America increased. It labor. Things started to change as this incredibly became common practice in the Middle and wealthy minority gained more and more power. New England colonies for all but the rich, and According to Pulliam, (1999 p. 86) “The persons perhaps the very poor, to have children learn lowest in social rank were entirely dependent to make a living either from their parents or upon the wealthy and powerful for what little through a traditional apprenticeship to a master education they received.” But because education craftsman. The primarily Protestant parents was carefully reserved for those favored by would try to have their children apprenticed to birth, non-privileged southerners largely a trade that was stable, and would provide them remained uneducated. “Rigid Southern social with a reasonable living. class distinctions allowed few opportunities for
5. Because of this, highly skilled trades were and writing (Seybolt, 1917, p. 104). These very competitive and might come very dearly. obligations were carefully regulated by law, as 69 “Doctor Benjamin Rush of colonial Philadelphia was evident in the Massachusetts Bay General The Journal of Technology Studies charged 100 pounds to take on an apprentice” Court Order of 1642. Selectmen were employed (Heavner, 1978, p. 45). Oftentimes, local officials to serve districts by visiting masters and deter- decided the fate of children by involuntarily mining whether they were following the law. binding them into an indenture. Many children would become apprentices at around the age The education of apprentices enforced by of fourteen and serve a master craftsman for up law was a unique approach. “The Massachusetts to seven years. During this time, the apprentice Bay colonists had originated a brand-new idea; would learn the trade secrets that his master there was nothing in English law or custom that used, often referred to as the “mysteries” of could serve as a determining precedent for this the trade. scheme” (Seybolt, 1917, p. 104). Other New England colonies quickly followed this pattern. As mentioned previously, the apprentice The Connecticut code of 1650 and the Duke of system was adopted from the English system, York’s Laws of 1655 were directly related to the however, as shown in studies by Morris (1946), Laws of Massachusetts. The New York law pos- existing indentures revealed that the arrange- tulated that children be instructed in “matters of ments for apprentices in colonial America often Religion and the Lawes of the Country . . . and held the masters responsible for different obliga- in some honest and Lawful Calling” (Seybolt, tions than those in England. 1917, p. 106). In particular, the education and clothing of The master, regarded in loco parentis, was the apprentice became very important bargain- usually required to provide such education for at ing aspects of the indenture in colonial America. least the first three years of a child’s indenture. The majority of indentures that exist from this If the master and his family could not provide time period were printed documents that provid- the necessary instruction themselves, the child ed blank spaces for filling in the price, term, was probably sent to a school during the winter, and any special provisions that were a part of or whatever period the selected trade was not the agreement. Most of the special provisions particularly busy. If it was available, evening included mention of clothing—the master of schools provided a means for educating the one Daniel Hibler, indented October 13, 1773 in working classes. “The indentures of Philadelphia, promised “at the Expiration of the Apprenticeship reveal the fact that there was Term to give him two Compt. Suits of Apparel an evening school in the Royal Colony of New one of which to be new” (Heavner, 1978, pp. York as early as 1690, and that by 1705 several 106-107). had been opened” (Seybolt, 1917, p. 107). The demand for schools that taught technical sub- The colonists of the Middle and New jects for apprentices can be seen in the follow- England colonies were primarily Protestants ing advertisement from Philadelphia’s American who valued education and would bargain Weekly Mercury, dated January 14-21, 1729 that shrewdly so that their children might learn stated: reading, writing, and cyphering along with gaining vocational skills. According to Quimby At the Free-School in Strawberry-Lane, (1985), in his study of Apprenticeship in near the Market House, Philadelphia, are taught Colonial Philadelphia, approximately two-thirds Writing, Arithmetick in all the Parts, both of the indentures that he discovered, dated from vulgar, Decimal and Duadecimal; Merchants 1745-1746 and 1771-1773, indicated provisions Accounts after the Italian manner through all for education. the Part of Commerce; Measuring all Artificers Work, Gauging, Dialling, with some other prac- The Education of Apprentices tical Parts of the Mathematicks: Also English An apprenticeship is a process of learning and Latin. N.B. He also teaches a Night School by doing and, in essence, the combination of at the Place aforesaid. By John Walby. (Quimby, education and industry. Beyond vocational 1985, p. 68) training, however, the master would be required to teach apprentices morality and practical Several successive Poor-Laws were also studies such as simple bookkeeping, reading, enacted in the Massachusetts Bay colonies
6. between 1703 and 1771. The intention of these and sometimes beyond. Of course, when the 70 laws was to ascertain that poor apprentices had apprentices completed their indenture they the opportunity to learn reading and writing. hoped to make their way as best they could with The Journal of Technology Studies These Poor-Laws essentially required that all the trade that they had learned. It is known that children should benefit from an elementary the majority of apprentices were never so suc- education and in their final form specified cessful as to become master craftsmen and pro- that males should learn “reading, writing, prietors of their own business establishments. and cyphering; females, reading and writing” To a large extent, the success of apprentices who (Seybolt, 1917, p. 105). completed their indentures was dependent on the education they were motivated enough to pursue The Growth of Schools on their own (Kaestle, 1983, p. 31). Beyond the Traditionally, the master was responsible for rudimentary skills that they were required to the actual education of the apprentice. However, receive through their apprenticeship, the appren- the increasing growth of schools, and demands tices often read books. In Boston, and in some for educational requirements for all children, other cities, there was an Apprentices’ Library began to affect the apprenticeship system. with books that might be beneficial for appren- Increasingly, masters began to accept the cost tices. However, the reading that they did was of having the apprentice taught in a school. usually not for pleasure, and rather toward some Benjamin Franklin, who signed an indenture goal. form that his business had printed, accepted his- 10-year-old nephew James as his apprentice on Some of those who served as apprentices the fifth of November 1740. For the first few were known to improve themselves beyond the years of his seven-year indenture, James was realm of their trade and become quite important sent to school by his uncle before actually work- people in colonial history. Benjamin Franklin ing in the printing office (Quimby, 1985, pp. iv himself was once apprenticed to his brother who & 70). Toward the end of the colonial period was a printer by trade. He became quite success- there is evidence that masters were relieved ful through hard work and grew to feel very of even that obligation, as the parents of the strongly about industriousness. He eventually apprentice often paid tuition expenses. Quimby contributed a great deal to the vocational (1985) cited records of indentures from the preparation and education of youth in colonial American Philosophical Society Library to Philadelphia (Rorabaugh, 1986). Other such reveal that in 1773 “Edward Bartholomew’s people included Paul Revere, who was appren- mother paid for four quarters of night school ticed as a silversmith, Henry Knox, and while his master . . . paid for four quarters Nathanial Greene, both American generals also” (p. 69). In another example from the same during the Revolutionary War. source: the “father of Michael Coats, apprentice to Samuel Loftis, chaisemaker, paid for all his Conclusion son’s evening school expenses” (p. 70) in the There were basically three general changes same year. Indentures also revealed that his in the attitude toward the education of indentured master expected the apprentice, to learn certain servants and apprentices in colonial America. skills or useful subjects by attending school. These changes were largely due mainly to the Yet another example from 1773 documented diversity of the groups that settled the colonies, that “Conrad Gabehard, apprentice to a painter the regional differences between the colonies, and glazier, was to be given three quarters of and the rapidly changing environment within the instruction in a drawing school” (Quimby, 1985, colonies at this time. pp. 71-72). The practice of indentured servitude in Education the Key to Success colonial America originated from the English The fact that apprentices were gaining system of apprenticeship. The traditional meth- education from sources beyond what their ods used by the English were molded to the master provided indicated that the relationship needs of the early colonists in order to populate between the master and his apprentice was the New World. Early indentured servants were becoming less personal. It also indicated that primarily laborers and particularly farm workers. apprentices were becoming more interested in Most of them were not apprentices, since they getting an education that could help them already knew their trades and needed little t advance themselves within their vocation, raining. They either entered their indentured
7. servitude voluntarily to pay for the expense of expounded by Rousseau, encouraged their travel to the colonies or were coerced by Democratic ideals and influenced the future of 71 officials or trade companies and became inden- many nations, including America. In his book The Journal of Technology Studies tured against their wishes. The education of the Emile, Rousseau described his philosophy of early indentured servants was not of great con- education, which would include the experience cern because they were mostly young adult of learning a purely mechanical art. Often, laborers and the literacy rate for these servants Rousseau ‘s writing reflected the fact of the was usually quite low. forthcoming Industrial Revolution, which was marked by the factory system of producing By the turn of the eighteenth century, slave goods. labor had developed in the Southern colonies, cities were growing in the North, and the need Soon schools began to develop for the for indentured servants as farm laborers began benefit of all. Night schools were also offered to decline. The American system of indentured for apprentices. Thus, as the American colonies servitude began to change back to a role similar neared their independence, the attitude and to the traditional English system of apprentice- approach toward the education of apprentices ship established to train youth in vocational had undergone yet another change. By the mid- skills. The major change was the desire to eighteenth century the master was no longer the educate the indentured apprentices since they primary supplier of basic educational skills and were the native-born children of the primarily was reduced to teaching vocational skills. Protestant colonists. The Americans did add a The education that apprentices received became few unique ideas to their system such as includ- more centralized under the growing influence of ing basic educational skills as an integral part of schools. Considerable debate has surrounded the the training that young apprentices received. In importance of the early laws related to the edu- this scheme, the master was the primary source cation of apprentices in laying the foundation of the information and education received. for the American public school system. Perhaps the most important outcome was that various In colonial America, apprenticeship eventu- forms of local government took a position that ally became the primary method of technical the delivery of education for all was something instruction. In many colonies, the master to be valued. became required by law to provide basic educational skills for their apprentices. These Dr. Mark R. Snyder is a faculty member in the laws created for the education of apprentices Department of Industry and Technology at had important implications for the education Millersville University of Pennsylvania. He is a of all children. The philosophy of Naturalism, member of Beta Chi chapter of Epsilon Pi Tau. Alderman, C. A. (1976). Colonists for sale. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Ballagh, J. C. (1895). White servitude in the colony of Virginia: A study of the system indentured labor in the American colonies. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Craven, W. F. (1968). The colonies in transition, 1660-1713. New York: Harper & Row. Davies, M, G. (1956). The Enforcement of English apprenticeship: A study in applied mercantilism, 1563-1642. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Galenson, D. W. (1981). White Servitude in colonial America: An economic analysis. New York: Cambridge University Press. Heavner, R. O. (1978). Economic aspects of indentured servitude in colonial Pennsylvania. New York: Arno Press. Kaestle, C. F. (1986). Pillars of the Republic: Common schools and American society, 1780-1860. New York: Hill & Wang. Morgan, K. (2001) Slavery and servitude in colonial North America. New York: New York University Press.
8. Morris, R. B. (1946) Government and labor in early America. New York: Columbia University Press. 72 Norton, A. (1986). Alternative Americas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Pulliam, J. D. (1999). History of education in America. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. The Journal of Technology Studies Quimby, I. (1985). Apprenticeship in colonial Philadelphia. New York: Garland Publishing. Rorabaugh, W. J. (1986). The craft apprentice: From Franklin to the machine age in America. New York: Oxford University Press. Rousseau, J. (1896). Emile, or, Treatise on education. New York: D. Appleton Seybolt, R. F. (1917). Apprenticeship & apprenticeship education in colonial New England & New York. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. Smith, A. E. (1947). Colonists in bondage: White servitude and convict labor in America, 1607-1776. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. Stanard, M. N. (1917). Colonial Virginia: Its people and customs. Philadelphia: Lippincott. Talpalar, M. (1960). The sociology of colonial Virginia. New York: Philosophical Library. Wood, D. (1992). Trinidad in transition: The years after slavery. London: Oxford University Press.
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