This book is about the English language in the 21st century: about who will speak it and for what purposes. It is a practical briefing document with a professional interest in the development of English worldwide.
2. English is widely regarded as having become the global language – but will it A world in transition retain its pre-eminence in the 21st century? The world in which it is used is in But there are reasons why we ought to take stock and reassess the place of English in the world. The future of the early stages of major social, economic and demographic transition. the English language may not be straightforward: celeb- Although English is unlikely to be displaced as the world’s most important ratory statistics should be treated with caution. language, the future is more complex and less certain than some assume. This book examines some facts, trends and ideas which may be uncomfortable to many native speakers. For example, the economic dominance of OECD count- Why worry now? ries – which has helped circulate English in the new Why worry now about the global future of the English market economies of the world – is being eroded as language? Is it not the first language of capitalism in a Asian economies grow and become the source, rather world in which socialism and communism have largely than the recipient, of cultural and economic flows. disappeared? Is it not the main language of international Population statistics suggest that the populations of the commerce and trade in a world where these sectors seem rich countries are ageing and that in the coming decades increasingly to drive the cultural and political? Has it not young adults with disposable income will be found in WWW more cultural resources, in the sense of works of litera- Asia and Latin America rather than in the US and ENGLISH 2000 ture, films and television programmes, than any other Europe. Educational trends in many countries suggest http://www.britcoun.org/ language? Is it not, as The Economist has described it, that languages other than English are already providing english/enge2000.htm ‘impregnably established as the world standard significant competition in school curricula. language: an intrinsic part of the global communications The Future of English? identifies such significant global ENGLISH CO UK LTD revolution’? (The Economist, 21 December 1996, p. 39) trends – in economics, technology and culture – which http://www.english.co.uk/ Isn’t it obvious, in other words, that the English may affect the learning and use of English internatio- language will continue to grow in popularity and influ- nally in the 21st century. We suggest that the close of the ence, without the need for special study or strategic 20th century is a time of global transition and that a new management? world order is emerging. The period of most rapid The simple answer to all these questions is probably change is likely to last about 20 years and can be expec- ‘yes’. There is no imminent danger to the English ted to be an uncomfortable and at times traumatic language, nor to its global popularity – a fact which is experience for many of the world’s citizens. During this recognised by the majority of people who are professio- period, the conditions will be established for more settled nally concerned with the English language worldwide global relations which may stabilise about 2050. Hence (Figure 1). The press release for the launch of the British the next 20 years or so will be a critical time for the Council’s English 2000 project in 1995 summarised the English language and for those who depend upon it. The position of English: patterns of usage and public attitudes to English which develop during this period will have long-term implicat- World-wide, there are over 1,400 million people living in ions for its future in the world. countries where English has official status. One out of five of In this book we argue that the global popularity of the world’s population speak English to some level of English is in no immediate danger, but that it would be competence. Demand from the other four fifths is increa- foolhardy to imagine that its pre-eminent position as a sing. ... By the year 2000 it is estimated that over one billion world language will not be challenged in some world people will be learning English. English is the main regions and domains of use as the economic, demograp- language of books, newspapers, airports and air-traffic cont- hic and political shape of the world is transformed. rol, international business and academic conferences, science technology, diplomacy, sport, international competi- A language in transition tions, pop music and advertising. 4,000 As the world is in transition, so the English language is itself taking new forms. This, of course, has always been Fin de siècle true: English has changed substantially in the 1500 years 3,000 The position of English as a world language may seem to or so of its use, reflecting patterns of contact with other be so entrenched and secure that agonising over ‘where languages and the changing communication needs of we are’ and ‘where we are going’ might be regarded as people. But in many parts of the world, as English is no more than a fin de siècle indulgence. The end of the taken into the fabric of social life, it acquires a momen- 19th century was characterised by much heart searching tum and vitality of its own, developing in ways which over the state of society – evident in social behaviour and reflect local culture and languages, while diverging incre- experimentation, fiction, scientific writing and legislative asingly from the kind of English spoken in Britain or 1,000 reform – prompted by a concern at the social consequ- North America. ences of the industrial revolution. How much greater English is also used for more purposes than ever might be the mood of self-reflection at the end of a before. Everywhere it is at the leading edge of technolo- 0 millennium, when the communications revolution and gical and scientific development, new thinking in economic globalisation seem to be destroying the reassu- economics and management, new literatures and enter- w e ee re ring geographical and linguistic basis of sovereignty and tainment genres. These give rise to new vocabularies, vie gr Ag o isa N national identity. How many titles of social and econo- grammatical forms and ways of speaking and writing. D Figure 1 Will English remain mics books include the word ‘end’ or the prefix ‘post’: Nowhere is the effect of this expansion of English into the world’s language? ‘The end of history’, ‘the post-industrial societies’, new domains seen more clearly than in communication Composite responses to the ‘post-modernism’, ‘post-capitalism’, ‘post-feminism’. on the Internet and the development of ‘net English’. British Council’s English There is a general awareness of change, but no clear But the language is, in another way, at a critical 2000 Global Consultation vision of where it may all be leading. It seems we are not moment in its global career: within a decade or so, the Questionnaire yet living in a new era, but have fallen off the edge of an number of people who speak English as a second old one. language will exceed the number of native speakers. The 2 The Future of English?
3. The future of English will be more complex, more demanding of understanding and more challenging for the position of native-speaking countries than has hitherto been supposed. implications of this are likely to be far reaching: the Questioning the future centre of authority regarding the language will shift from The Future of English? thus explores a range of topics with native speakers as they become minority stakeholders in a common theme: the changing world which affects our the global resource. Their literature and television may use of language. Its primary purpose is to stimulate no longer provide the focal point of a global English informed debate about the global future of English and language culture, their teachers no longer form the the implications both for British providers of English unchallenged authoritative models for learners. language services and the institutions and enterprises Jurassic Park grossed $6m with which they work overseas. For this reason, the book in India in 1994. But in Contradictory trends aims to provide thought-provoking ideas rather than firm what language? Many of the trends that are documented here are not predictions. It points to areas of uncertainty and doubt – p. 47 simply ‘driving forces’ whose impact and consequences where an understanding of local issues will be as valuable can be easily predicted. And in so far as they are under- as that of global trends. Many of the issues the book stood they appear to be leading in contradictory direc- addresses will be of interest to a wide range of people, 385 million people will tions – tendencies to increasing use of English are both specialists and professionals, but also members of be employed in world counterposed by others which lead to a reducing the general public. These issues raise such questions as: tourist services by 2006. enthusiasm for the language. On the one hand, the use Will they all need ● How many people will speak English in the year English? of English as a global lingua franca requires intelligibility 2050? p. 36 and the setting and maintenance of standards. On the other hand, the increasing adoption of English as a ● What role will English play in their lives? Will they second language, where it takes on local forms, is leading enjoy the rich cultural resources the English language How many people will to fragmentation and diversity. No longer is it the case, if offers or will they simply use English as a vehicular speak English in 2050? it ever was, that English unifies all who speak it. language – like a tool of their trade? p. 27 These competing trends will give rise to a less predi- ● What effects will economic globalisation have on the ctable context within which the English language will be demand for English? learned and used. There is, therefore, no way of preci- What have been the sely predicting the future of English since its spread and ● Will the emergence of ‘world regions’ encourage heroic failures of the past continued vitality is driven by such contradictory forces. lingua francas which challenge the position of in predicting the number As David Crystal has commented: English? of English speakers? There has never been a language so widely spread or spoken ● How does English help the economic modernisation p. 18 by so many people as English. There are therefore no prece- of newly industrialised countries? dents to help us see what happens to a language when it ● Is the Internet the electronic ‘flagship’ of global achieves genuine world status. (Crystal, 1997, p. 139) English? The likelihood, as this book demonstrates, is that the ● Will the growth of global satellite TV, such as CNN future for English will be a complex and plural one. The and MTV, teach the world’s youth US English? language will grow in usage and variety, yet simulta- neously diminish in relative global importance. We may ● Will the spread of English lead to over half of the find the hegemony of English replaced by an oligarchy world’s languages becoming extinct? of languages, including Spanish and Chinese. To put it ● Is it true that the English language will prove to be a in economic terms, the size of the global market for the vital resource and benefit to Britain in the coming English language may increase in absolute terms, but its century, giving it a key economic advantage over market share will probably fall. European competitors? A new world era Commentators vary greatly in attitudes towards, and According to many economists, cultural theorists and expectations of, global English. At one extreme, there is political scientists, the new ‘world order’ expected to an unproblematic assumption that the world will eventu- appear in the 21st century will represent a significant ally speak English and that this will facilitate the cultural discontinuity with previous centuries. The Internet and and economic dominance of native-speaking countries related information technologies, for example, may (especially the US). Such a view is challenged, however, upset the traditional patterns of communication upon by the growing assertiveness of countries adopting which institutional and national cultures have been built. English as a second language that English is now their We have entered a period in which language and language, through which they can express their own communication will play a more central role than ever values and identities, create their own intellectual property before in economic, political and cultural life – just at the and export goods and services to other countries. moment in history that a global language has emerged. The spread of English in recent years is, by any There are signs already of an associated shift of social criterion, a remarkable phenomenon. But the closer one values which may have a significant impact on the future examines the historical causes and current trends, the decision-making of organisations, governments and more it becomes apparent that the future of English will consumers. Some commentators predict that, just as be more complex, more demanding of understanding environmental issues were once regarded as less impor- and more challenging for the position of native-speaking tant than the need for profit, so issues of social equity will countries than has hitherto been supposed. form a third ‘bottom line’ in the global business environ- This book is neither triumphalist nor alarmist, but ment. This suggests that those who promote the global seeks to chart some of the territory, to stimulate a more use of English will be burdened with new social responsi- informed debate which can, in turn, help all those con- bilities and may have to engage with a more complex cerned with the future of English prepare for the public agenda, including ethical issues relating to lingu- significant changes the 21st century will bring. istic human rights. The Future of English? 3
4. Book highlights 1 English and the international economy 4 A bilingual future The shifting patterns of trade and new working practices (such There is a growing belief amongst language professionals that as the growing prevalence of screen-based labour) which the future will be a bilingual one, in which an increasing follow globalisation are affecting the use of the English proportion of the world’s population will be fluent speakers of language in complex ways. At present there is a considerable more than one language. For the last few hundred years increase in the numbers of people learning and using English, English has been dominated by monolingual speakers’ but a closer examination of driving forces suggests that the interests: there is little to help us understand what will happen long-term growth of the learning of English is less secure than to English when the majority of the people and institutions might at first appear. who use it do so as a second language. 2 English and global culture 5 Social value shifts As the number of people using English grows, so second- The spread of English has been made more rapid in recent language speakers are drawn towards the ‘inner circle’ of years as a consequence of decisions and actions taken by first-language speakers and foreign-language speakers to the governments, institutions and individuals. This process has ‘outer circle’ of second-language speakers. During this status been guided by a logic of ‘economic rationalism’. However, migration, attitudes and needs in respect of the language will significant social value shifts may occur in public opinion, change; the English language will diversify and other countries making social equity as important a factor in public policy as will emerge to compete with the older, native-speaking economic issues, and quality of life as important as income in countries in both the English language-teaching industry and personal life choices. Such value shifts would foreground the in the global market for cultural resources and intellectual complex ethical issues associated with the world dominance of property in English. a single language and cause a reassessment of the impact of English on other cultures, national identities and educational 3 English as a leading-edge phenomenon opportunities for the world’s non-English speaking citizens. English is closely associated with the leading edge of global The economic argument for English may also be challenged as scientific, technological, economic and cultural developments, developing countries make more careful evaluations of the where it has been unrivalled in its influence in the late 20th costs and benefits of mass educational programmes in the century. But we cannot simply extrapolate from the last few English language. decades and assume this trend will continue unchanged. In four key sectors, the present dominance of English can be 6 Need for scenario building expected to give way to a wider mix of languages: first, the This book suggests that development work should be put in global audio-visual market and especially satellite TV; second, hand towards the building and testing of ‘scenarios’ which the Internet and computer-based communication including encompass a range of possible futures for English in key areas. language-related and document handling software; third, A ‘Delphi panel’ of experts (p. 23) in different regions of the technology transfer and associated processes in economic world could be invited to respond to the scenarios and help globalisation; fourth, foreign-language learning especially in establish local understandings of the changing role of English. developing countries where growing regional trade may make Such qualitative work should go hand-in-hand with the other languages of increasing economic importance. collection of key statistics and trend data. Crystal, D. (1997) English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Maybin, J. and Mercer, N. (1996) (eds) Using English: from conversation to canon. Press. London: Routledge/Open University. The Economist (1996) Language and Electronics: the coming global tongue. 21 Mercer, N. and Swann, J. (1996) (eds) Learning English: development and diversity. December, pp. 37–9. London: Routledge/Open University. Goodman, S. and Graddol, D. (1996) (eds) Redesigning English: new texts, new Further reading identities. London: Routledge/Open University. There are many books now available which examine the social and linguistic contexts in which English developed historically. The Future of English? has Sources been written to complement the following books in particular: A composite list of sources for the tables and figures in this book can be found on the inside back cover. Crystal, D. (1997) English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Note Graddol, D., Leith, D. and Swann, J. (1996) (eds) English: history, diversity and All references to $ in this text are to US$. 1 billion = 1,000 million; 1 trillion = change. London: Routledge/Open University. 1,000,000 million 4 The Future of English?
5. English today 1 ● The legacy of history Looking at the past is an important step towards Britain’s colonial expansion established the pre-conditions for the understanding the future. Any serious study of English global use of English, taking the language from its island birthplace to in the 21st century must start by examining how settlements around the world. The English language has grown up in contact with many others, making it a hybrid language which can English came to be in its current state and spoken by rapidly evolve to meet new cultural and communicative needs. those who speak it. What factors have ensured the spread of English? What does this process tell us ● English in the 20th century about the fate of languages in unique political and The story of English in the 20th century has been closely linked to cultural contexts? In what domains of knowledge has the rise of the US as a superpower that has spread the English language alongside its economic, technological and cultural influence. English developed particular importance and how In the same period, the international importance of other European recently? languages, especially French, has declined. English is remarkable for its diversity, its propensity to ● Who speaks English? change and be changed. This has resulted in both a There are three kinds of English speaker: those who speak it as a first variety of forms of English, but also a diversity of language, those for whom it is a second or additional language and cultural contexts within which English is used in daily those who learn it as a foreign language. Native speakers may feel the life. The main areas of development in the use and language ‘belongs’ to them, but it will be those who speak English as a second or foreign language who will determine its world future. form of English will undoubtedly come from non- native speakers. How many are there and where are ● Language hierarchies they located? And when and why do they use English Languages are not equal in political or social status, particularly in instead of their first language? We need to be aware multilingual contexts. How does English relate to other languages in a of the different place that English has in the lives of multilingual speaker’s reper toire? Why does someone use English rather than a local language? What characteristic patterns are there in native speakers, second-language users and those the use of English by non-native speakers? who learn it as a foreign language. This section examines the development of English, identifies those languages which have historically rivalled English as a world language and explains the special place that English has in multilingual countries and in the repertoires of multilingual speakers. By showing how our present arose from the past, we will be better equipped to speculate on what the future might hold in store. The Future of English? 5
6. The legacy of history Britain’s colonial expansion established the pre-conditions for the global use language in a way similar to the 17th century extension of English, taking the language from its island birthplace to settlements of English in vocabulary and function. Nation states are getting more plentiful – there are around the world. The English language has grown up in contact with many now over 180 states represented at the UN – and one others, making it a hybrid language which can rapidly evolve to meet new consequence of the break-up of larger territories into cultural and communicative needs. separate states has been the emergence of new national languages. Simultaneously, the role of the nation state is being weakened as economic globalisation, regional The colonial period trading blocs and new multilateral political affiliations The English language has been associated with migrat- limit national spheres of control. Nevertheless, the death ion since its first origins – the language came into being of the nation state is much exaggerated. National educa- in the 5th century with patterns of people movement tion systems, for example, play a major role in determi- and resettlement. But as a world language its history ning which languages in the world are taught and began in the 17th century, most notably in the foundat- learned. The role of nation states is changing but is by ion of the American colonies. Many European powers no means abolished. were similarly expanding: French, Dutch, Portuguese and Spanish became established as colonial languages, The emergence of national varieties the latter two still important outside Europe in Latin The attempt to fix and ‘ascertain’ the English language, America. But in the 19th century the British empire, made in the 18th and 19th centuries, was never entirely with its distinctive mix of trade and cultural politics, successful: the language has continued to adapt itself consolidated the world position of English, creating a swiftly to new circumstances and people. And it was not ‘language on which the sun never sets’. just Britain which desired a national language from English. Noah Webster’s proposed reforms of the The rise of the nation state American spelling system, some of which give it a distin- In Europe of the middle ages, power was distributed ctive appearance in print, were intended explicitly to between Church, sovereign and local barons, creating create a national linguistic identity for the newly inde- multiple agencies of social control, government and land pendent country: Is English the most management. Even in the 1500s, a monarch such as The question now occurs; ought the Americans to retain widely spoken language Charles V ruled geographically dispersed parts of these faults which produce innumerable inconveniences in in the world today? Europe. But by the 17th and 18th centuries, the nation the acquisition and use of the language, or ought they at p. 8 state had emerged as a territorial basis for administration once to reform these abuses, and introduce order and regu- and cultural identity. Yet language diversity was exten- Will future language use larity into the orthography of the American tongue? ... a sive and many language boundaries crossed the borders be shaped by time zone capital advantage of this reform ... would be, that it would of newly emerging states. Each nation state required rather than geography in make a difference between the English orthography and the therefore an internal lingua franca, subject like other the 21st century? American. ... a national language is a band of national instruments of state to central regulation, which could p. 53 union. ... Let us seize the present moment, and establish a act as a vehicle of governance and as an emblem of national language as well as a national government. national identity. ‘National’ languages, not existing in (Webster, 1789) Europe prior to the creation of nation states, had to be constructed. Consequently, the English language was There are an increasing number of national stan- self-consciously expanded and reconstructed to serve the dards, including those related to the ‘New Englishes’ purposes of a national language. which have appeared in former colonial countries such Profound cultural as well as political changes affected as Singapore. Each standard is supported (or soon may the English language. Modern institutions of science be) by national dictionaries, grammars and style sheets. were founded, such as the Royal Society in Britain; Nevertheless, no central authority has ever existed, language was added to the scientific agenda and made either nationally or globally, which can regulate the an object of study alongside investigations of the natural language. world. New words and ways of writing in English were developed. For a time, scholars and clerics who regularly A hybrid and flexible language travelled across the boundaries of national languages English has always been an evolving language and continued to use Latin as their lingua franca. But as language contact has been an important driver of knowledge of Latin declined and the rise of merchant change. First from Celtic and Latin, later from and professional classes produced travellers unschooled Scandinavian and Norman French, more recently from in Latin, people sought alternative means of internatio- the many other languages spoken in the British colonies, nal communication. the English language has borrowed freely. Some analysts The idea of a national language being a requirement see this hybridity and permeability of English as defining for a nation state has remained a powerful one. The features, allowing it to expand quickly into new domains 20th century process of decolonisation created a drive to and explaining in part its success as a world language. establish new national languages which could provide an One of the few certainties associated with the future integrated identity for multi-ethnic states set up on the of English is that it will continue to evolve, reflecting and European model. Few countries were as bold as constructing the changing roles and identities of its spea- Singapore, in adopting a multi-language formula which kers. Yet we are now at a significant point of evolution: reflected the ethnic languages of the new state. Even in at the end of the 20th century, the close relationship that India, Hindi is the sole national language and English has previously existed between language, territory and technically an ‘associate’. In some countries a new natio- cultural identity is being challenged by globalising forces. nal language had to be created – such as Bahasa The impact of such trends will shape the contexts in Malaysia which raised the status of Malay into a national which English is learned and used in the 21st century. 6 The Future of English?
7. Seven ages of English This page provides an overview of the history of English, from its birth in the 5th century to the present day 1 Pre-English period ( – c. AD 450) 5 Early Modern English (c.1450–1750) The origins of English are, for a language, surprisingly well docu- This period spans the Renaissance, the Elizabethan era and mented. At the time of the Roman invasion c.55 BC, the indigenous Shakespeare. It is the period when the nation states of Europe took languages of Britain were Celtic, of which there were two main their modern form. The role of the Church and Latin declined. In branches (corresponding to modern Gaelic and Welsh). The England, key institutions of science, such as the Royal Society, Romans made Latin an ‘official’ language of culture and govern- were established and, by the end of the 17th century, theoreticians ment, probably resulting in many communities in Britain beco- like Isaac Newton were writing their discoveries in English rather ming bilingual Celtic-Latin. Garrisons of troops then arrived from than Latin. elsewhere in the Roman empire, particularly Gaul, another Celtic Britain grew commercially and acquired overseas colonies. English area. In some points, the English language has repeated this early was taken to the Americas (first colony at Jamestown, Virginia history of Latin: it was brought into many countries in the 17th to 1607) and India (first trading post at Surat 1614). With the rise of 19th centuries as the language of a colonial power and made the printing (first printed book in English 1473) English acquired a language of administration, spoken by a social elite, but not used stable typographic identity. Teaching English as a foreign language by the majority of the population. It served, moreover, as an inter- began in the 16th century, first in Holland and France. national lingua franca amongst the elites of many countries. But the use of Latin rapidly declined in the 17th and 18th centuries. Will English share this fate? A common writing: whereby two, although not understanding one the others language, yet by the helpe thereof, may communicate their minds one to another. ... 2 Early Old English (c.450–c.850) The harshness of the stile, I hope, will be corrected by The English language developed after the Anglo-Saxon invasion the readers ingenuity. c.449 AD, when the Romans left Britain and new settlers brought Preface to A Common Writing, Francis Lodwick, 1647 Germanic dialects from mainland Europe. Latin was still an impor- tant written language because of the Church and many Latin words were introduced into Old English during this early period, 6 Modern English (c.1750–1950) but the language developed a new form: the first English literary English had become a ‘national’ language. Many attempts were texts appeared. made to ‘standardise and fix’ the language with dictionaries and grammars (Johnson’s Dictionary 1755, the Oxford English Dictionary 1858–1928). The industrial revolution triggered off a global Gefeng þa be feaxe (nalas for fæhðe mearn) restructuring of work and leisure which made English the internat- Guð-Geata leod Grendles modor; ional language of advertising and consumerism. The telegraph was brægd þa beadwe heard, þa he gebolgen wæs, patented in 1837, linking English-speaking communities around feorhgeniðlan, þæt heo on flet gebeah. the world and establishing English as the major language for wire Beowulf seizes Grendel’s mother by the hair: a fragment services. As Britain consolidated imperial power, English-medium from the epic Old English poem composed c. 750 education was introduced in many parts of the world. The interna- tional use of French declined. The first international series of English language-teaching texts was published from Britain in 1938 3 Later Old English (c.850–1100) and the world’s first TV commercial was broadcast in the US in This was a time of invasion and settlement from Scandinavia (the 1941. English emerged as the most popular working language for Vikings) and a time of language change. In the north of England transnational institutions. dialects of English were extensively influenced by Scandinavian languages. In the south, King Alfred, concerned about falling educational standards, arranged for many Latin texts to be transla- 7 Late Modern English (c.1950–) ted into English. With Britain’s retreat from the empire, local and partially standar- dised varieties of English have emerged in newly independent countries. ELT has become a major private-sector industry. In the aftermath of World War II, the US became a global economic and 4 Middle English (c.1100–1450) cultural presence, making American English the dominant world The Norman Conquest (1066) and rule brought about many lingu- variety. The first geostationary communications satellites were istic changes. French, now the official language in England, affec- launched (Early Bird 1965) and the Internet was invented (US ted English vocabulary and spelling. The grammar of English was 1970s). A world market in audio-visual products was created and also radically transformed. Whereas Old English expressed gram- soap operas such as Dallas circulated the globe. Worldwide English matical relations through inflections (word endings), Middle language TV channels began (CNN International launched 1989). English lost many inflections and used word order to mark the Meanwhile, English has acquired new electronic forms, as the frag- grammatical function of nouns. Educated people probably needed ment of a textual interaction from a north European reflector for to be trilingual in French, Latin and English. It was a flourishing Internet Relay Chat shows: period for English literature. Writers included Geoffrey Chaucer, whose language is beginning to look like modern English. Moonhoo joined (total 22) cam someone ping me please And preie God save the king, that is lord of this langage, action fires a harpoon at Moonhoo. and alle that him feith berith and obeieth, everich in his whispers: U all dont sound to awfullly excited :(:( degre, the more and the lasse. But considere wel that I North the host is a geek though ne usurpe not to have founden this werk of my labour Moonhoo: you’re lagged bigtime. or of myn engyn. Prologue of A Treatise on the Astrolabe, Geoffrey Chaucer, 1391 The Future of English? 7
8. English in the 20th century The story of English in the 20th century has been closely linked to the rise of For the spread of English, the aftermath of World the US as a superpower that has spread the English language alongside its War II was decisive. American influence was extended around the world. As George Steiner has observed: economic, technological and cultural influence. In the same period, the international importance of other European languages, especially French, has English acted as the vulgate of American power and of Anglo-American technology and finance. ... In ways too declined. intricate, too diverse for socio-linguistics to formulate preci- sely, English and American-English seem to embody for The rise of the US men and women throughout the world – and particularly for the young – the ‘feel’ of hope, of material advance, of By the end of the 19th century, Britain had established scientific and empirical procedures. The entire world-image the pre-conditions for English as a global language. of mass consumption, of international exchange, of the Communities of English speakers were settled around popular arts, of generational conflict, of technocracy, is the world and, along with them, patterns of trade and permeated by American-English and English citations and communication. Yet the world position of English might speech habits. (Steiner, 1975, p. 469) have declined with the empire, like the languages of other European colonial powers, such as Portugal and Steiner captures the complex mix of the economic, the Netherlands, had it not been for the dramatic rise of technological, political and cultural which is evident in the US in the 20th century as a world superpower. the international domains of English at the end of the There were, indeed, two other European linguistic 20th century. Those domains, listed in Table 2, are contenders which could have established themselves as discussed more fully later in the book. Here, we briefly the global lingua franca – French and German. Eco examine how this situation arose in the second half of Will the growth of the (1995) suggests: the 20th century. Internet help maintain the global influence of Had Hitler won World War II and had the USA been redu- World institutions English? ced to a confederation of banana republics, we would After the war, several international agencies were estab- p. 50 probably today use German as a universal vehicular lished to help manage global reconstruction and future language, and Japanese electronic firms would advertise governance. The key one has proved to be the United their products in Hong Kong airport duty-free shops Nations and its subsidiary organisations. Crystal (1997) (Zollfreie Waren) in German. (Eco, 1995, p. 331) What effect will changing estimates that 85% of international organisations now patterns of trade have on This is probably a disingenuous idea: the US was use English as one of their working languages, 49% use the use of English? destined to be the most powerful of the industrialised French and fewer than 10% use Arabic, Spanish or p. 33 countries because of its own natural and human resour- German. These figures probably underestimate the de ces. The US is today the world’s third most populous facto use of English in such organisations. The country with around 260 million inhabitants. Not surpri- International Association for Applied Linguistics, for sing therefore that it now accounts for the greater example, lists French as a working language (and is proportion of the total number of native English spea- known by a French acronym AILA), but English is used kers. According to Table 1, which uses data generated almost exclusively in its publications and meetings. In by the engco forecasting model (described more fully on Europe, the hegemony of English – even on paper – is p. 64), only Chinese has more first-language users. While surprisingly high. Crystal (1997) estimates 99% of such league tables beg as many questions as they answer, European organisations listed in a recent yearbook of (and we will later discuss the serious problems attached international associations cite English as a working to statistics relating to language use) they do make language, as opposed to 63% French and 40% German. provocative reading – Hindi, Spanish and Arabic are French is still the only real rival to English as a work- close behind English, but how secure their place will be ing language of world institutions, although the world in the 21st century is a matter of speculation. position of French has been in undoubted rapid decline Language engco model Ethnologue 1 Chinese 1,113 1,123 1 Working language of international 2 English 372 322 organisations and conferences 3 Hindi/Urdu 316 236 2 Scientific publication 4 Spanish 304 266 3 International banking, economic affairs and trade 5 Arabic 201 202 4 Advertising for global brands 6 Portuguese 165 170 5 Audio-visual cultural products (e.g. film, TV, 7 Russian 155 288 popular music) 8 Bengali 125 189 6 International tourism 9 Japanese 123 125 7 Tertiary education 10 German 102 98 8 International safety (e.g. ‘airspeak’, ‘seaspeak’) 11 French 70 72 9 International law 12 Italian 57 63 10 As a ‘relay language’ in interpretation and 13 Malay 47 47 translation 11 Technology transfer Table 1 Major world languages in millions of first-language 12 Internet communication speakers according to the engco model and comparative figures from the Ethnologue (Grimes, 1996) Table 2 Major international domains of English 8 The Future of English?
9. ‘It has all happened so quickly’ – David Crystal in English as a global language. since World War II. Its use in international forums is Japanese 5.1% Russian 4.7% unlikely to disappear entirely, however, because it retains a somewhat negative convenience in being ‘not English’, Spanish 6.7% Portuguese 4.5% particularly in Europe. It is the only alternative which can be used in many international forums as a political French 7.7% Korean 4.4% gesture of resistance to the hegemony of English. As a delegate from Ireland once addressed the League of Italian 4.0% Nations many years ago, explaining his use of French, ‘I can’t speak my own language, and I’ll be damned if I’ll German 11.8% Dutch 2.4% speak English’ (cited in Large, 1985, p. 195). Chinese 13.3% Swedish 1.6% Financial institutions English 28% Other 5.8% English has been spread as a world language not only via political initiatives. Key financial institutions have been established in the 20th century, again after World War II and with major American involvement. The Figure 2 The proportion of the world’s books annually published in each language. English is the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank most widely used foreign language for book publication: over 60 countries publish titles in were established after the ‘Bretton Woods’ conference in English. Britain publishes more titles than any other country, thus generating more intellectual 1944. Through the Marshall plan, the US became property in the language than the US. Some UK publishers, however, adopt US English house- closely involved in the post-war economic reconstruction styles and this, together with the fact that print runs in North America are typically much of Europe, Japan and other parts of the Asia Pacific longer than in the UK, ensures that books published in US English receive a wider circulation region. The Korean and later the Vietnamese war conti- than those in British English. In the 21st century there is likely to be considerable growth in nued the process of spreading American influence. English language publishing in countries where English is spoken as a second language Cultural, economic and technological dependency on America were soon a concern for nations across the world. The Bretton Woods system has since played a It is not just in scientific publishing, but in book significant role in regulating international economic rela- publication as a whole that English rules supreme. tions and in introducing free-market regimes in countries Worldwide, English is the most popular language of where control has been traditionally centralised. As publication. Figure 2 shows the estimated proportion of more countries have been rendered ‘open’ to global titles published in different languages in the early 1990s. flows of finance, goods, knowledge and culture, so the Unesco figures for book production show Britain influence of English has spread. outstripping any other country in the world for the number of titles published each year. In 1996, a remar- Scientific publishing kable 101,504 titles were published in Britain English is now the international currency of science and (Independent, 25 February 1997, p. 11). Although there technology. Yet it has not always been so. The renais- are countries which publish more per head of the popu- sance of British science in the 17th century put English- lation and many countries which print more copies, language science publications, such as the Philosophical none publishes as many titles. Many of these books are Transactions instituted by the Royal Society 1665, at the exported, or are themselves part of a globalised trade in forefront of the world scientific community. But the posi- which books may be typeset in one country, printed in tion was soon lost to German, which became the domi- another and sold in a third. nant international language of science until World War It is difficult to decide the relative cultural influence I. The growing role of the US then ensured that English of huge numbers of copies of few titles available on the became, once again, the global language of experiment one hand, against many titles printed in short runs on and discovery. the other. However, the statistics show the enormous Physics 98% Journals in many countries have shifted, since World amount of intellectual property being produced in the Chemistry 83% War II, from publishing in their national language to English language in an era where intellectual property is Biology 81% Psychology 81% publishing in English. Gibbs (1995) describes how the becoming increasingly valuable. Maths 78% Mexican medical journal Archivos de Investigación Médica Earth Sciences 76% shifted to English: first publishing abstracts in English, English in the 21st century Medical Science 72% then providing English translations of all articles, finally The position of English in the world today is thus the Sociology 72% hiring an American editor, accepting articles only in joint outcome of Britain’s colonial expansion and the Philosophy 56% English and changing its name to Archives of Medical more recent activity of the US. Any substantial shift in Forestry 55% Research. This language shift is common elsewhere. A the role of the US in the world is likely to have an Vet. Sciences 53% study in the early 1980s showed nearly two-thirds of impact on the use and attractiveness of the English Economics 48% publications of French scientists were in English. Viereck language amongst those for whom it is not a first Sports Sciences 40% Linguistics 35% (1996) describes how all contributions in 1950 to the language. Later, we will see how the economic domi- Education 27% Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie were in German, but by 1984 nance of the US is expected to decline, as economies in Literature 23% 95% were in English. The journal was renamed Ethology Asia overtake it in size. The question remains whether History 20% two years later. English has become so entrenched in the world that a Classics 17% As might be expected, some disciplines have been decline in the influence of the US would harm it. Are its Theology 12% more affected by the English language than others. cultural resources and intellectual property so extensive Law 8% Physics is the most globalised and anglophone, followed that no other language can catch up? Or will other a close second by other pure sciences. Table 3 shows the languages come to rival English in their global impor- Table 3 Disciplines in percentage of German scholars in each field reporting tance, pushing English aside much in the same way as which German academics English as their ‘de facto working language’ in a study by Latin was abandoned as an international lingua franca claim English as their Skudlik (1992). 300 years ago? working language The Future of English? 9
10. Who speaks English? There are three kinds of English speaker: those who speak it as a first Possible language, those for whom it is a second or additional language and those language who learn it as a foreign language. Native speakers may feel the language shift ‘belongs’ to them, but it will be those who speak English as a second or foreign language who will determine its world future. Possible language shift Three types of English speaker There are three types of English speaker in the world 375 million 750 million today, each with a different relationship with the L2 speakers EFL speakers language. First-language (L1) speakers are those for whom English is a first – and often only – language. These native speakers live, for the most part, in countries 375 million in which the dominant culture is based around English. L1 speakers These countries, however, are experiencing increasing linguistic diversity as a result of immigration. Second- language (L2) speakers have English as a second or addi- tional language, placing English in a repertoire of Figure 4 Showing the three circles of English as overlapping languages where each is used in different contexts. makes it easier to see how the ‘centre of gravity’ will shift Speakers here might use a local form of English, but may towards L2 speakers at the start of the 21st century also be fluent in international varieties. The third group of English speakers are the growing number of people of English called creoles. Creoles have as their origin a learning English as a foreign language (EFL). pidgin – a reduced form of communication used Leith (1996) argues that the first two kinds of English- between speakers of mutually unintelligible languages – EXPANDING speaking community result from different colonial which becomes extended in vocabulary and grammar as OUTER processes. He identifies three kinds: a result of being used as a mother tongue. Classification of creole speakers is problematic. From a linguistic view, In the first type, exemplified by America and Australia, INNER there is merit in regarding creoles as distinct languages. substantial settlement by first-language speakers of English 320-380 From a sociolinguistic view, it may be better to regard displaced the precolonial population. In the second, typified creole speakers as belonging to the English-speaking by Nigeria, sparser colonial settlements maintained the 150-300 community, because of the emergence in several count- precolonial population in subjection and allowed a propor- ries of a ‘post-creole continuum’: a range of language 100-1000 tion of them access to learning English as a second, or addi- varieties from standard English to fully fledged creole. tional, language. There is yet a third type, exemplified by Dividing English speakers into three groups is a time- the Caribbean islands of Barbados and Jamaica. Here a Figure 3 The three circles of honoured approach to language use and, though not precolonial population was replaced by a new labour from English according to Kachru without its problems, is a useful starting point for under- elsewhere, principally West Africa. ... The long-term effect (1985) with estimates of standing the pattern of English worldwide. These three of the slave trade on the development of the English speaker numbers in millions groups have become widely known (after Kachru, 1985) language is immense. It gave rise not only to black English according to Crystal (1997) as the ‘inner circle’, the ‘outer circle’ and the ‘expanding in the United States and the Caribbean, which has been an circle’ (Figure 3). One of the drawbacks of this termino- important influence on the speech of young English spea- logy is the way it locates the ‘native speakers’ and native- kers worldwide, but it also provided the extraordinary speaking countries at the centre of the global use of context of language contact which led to the formation of English and, by implication, the source of models of English pidgins and creoles. (Leith, 1996, pp. 181–2, 206) correctness, the best teachers and English-language Table 4 Native speakers of Each colonial process had different linguistic conse- goods and services consumed by those in the periphery. English (in thousands) quences. The first type created a diaspora of native spea- This model, however, will not be the most useful for incorporating estimates by kers of English (US, Canada, South Africa, Australia, describing English usage in the next century. Those who Crystal (1997) New Zealand), with each settlement eventually establis- speak English alongside other languages will outnumber hing its own national variety of English. The second first-language speakers and, increasingly, will decide the (*indicates territories in (India, West Africa, East Africa) made English an elite global future of the language. For that reason we retain which English is used as an second language, frequently required for further educat- here the terminology of ‘first-language speaker’ (L1), L1, but where there is ion and government jobs. ‘second-language speaker’ (L2) and ‘speaker of English greater L2 use or significant The linguistic consequences of the third type were as a foreign language’ (EFL). Figure 4 provides an alter- use of another language) complex, including the creation of new hybrid varieties native way of visualising these three communities. Antigua and Barbuda 61 Guam* 56 Papua New Guinea* 120 Trinidad and Tobago 1,200 Australia 15,316 Guyana 700 Philippines* 15 UK (England, Scotland, Bahamas 250 Hong Kong* 125 Puerto Rico* 110 N. Ireland, Wales*) 56,990 Barbados 265 India* 320 Sierra Leone* 450 UK Islands Belize* 135 Irish Republic 3,334 St Kitts and Nevis 39 (Channel*, Man) 217 Bermuda 60 Jamaica 2,400 St Lucia 29 US* 226,710 Brunei* 10 Liberia* 60 St Vincent and Grenadines 111 Virgin Is (British) 17 Canada 19,700 Malaysia* 375 Singapore* 300 Virgin Is (US) 79 Cayman Is 29 Montserrat 11 South Africa* 3,600 Zambia* 50 Gibraltar* 25 Namibia* 13 Sri Lanka* 10 Zimbabwe* 250 Grenada 101 New Zealand 3,396 Suriname 258 10 The Future of English?
11. Those who speak English alongside other languages will outnumber first-language speakers and, increasingly, will decide the global future of the language. The first-language countries Using a tripartite division as a starting point for analysis, we can find English spoken as a first language in over 30 American English British English territories (Table 4). Crystal (1997) calculates that world- wide there are a little over 377 million speakers of English as a first language, including creole. It is a figure in line with other recent estimates and the figures gene- rated by the engco model (Table 1, p. 8, see also p. 64). Canada British Isles The second-language areas U.S. In the 19th century, it was common to refer to English as ‘the language of administration’ for one-third of the S. Asia Philippines (US) Caribbean world’s population. It is interesting to compare this AUSTRALASIA Am. Samoa W. Africa figure with Crystal’s present-day estimate (1997) that the E. Africa S.E. Asia aggregated population of all countries in which English PNG has any special status (the total number of people Fiji Anglophone ‘exposed to English’), represents around one-third of the S. Africa Australia New Zealand world’s population. It is not surprising that the figures are similar, since the more populous of the 75 or so countries in which English has special status (Table 5) are former colonies of Britain. Competence in English among second-language Figure 5 The branches of world English speakers, like that in EFL speakers, varies from native- like fluency to extremely poor, but whereas in EFL areas part of the speaker’s identity repertoire. In the EFL English is used primarily for communication with spea- world there is, by definition, no local model of English, Argentina kers from other countries, in an L2 area English is used though speakers’ English accents and patterns of error Belgium Costa Rica for internal (intranational) communication. may reflect characteristics of their first language. Denmark Areas in which English is used extensively as a second Ethiopia language usually develop a distinct variety of English Language shift Honduras which reflects other languages used alongside English. In many parts of the world there are ongoing shifts in Lebanon Parts of the world where such varieties (‘New Englishes’) the status of English. These are largely undocumented Myanmar (Burma) have emerged are the former colonial territories in and unquantified, but will represent a significant factor Nepal South Asia, South-east Asia, Africa and the Caribbean. in the global future of the language. In those countries Netherlands Although these local forms of English have their own listed in Table 6, the use of English for intranational Nicaragua vitality and dynamic of change, there is often an under- communication is greatly increasing (such as in profes- Norway Panama lying model of correctness to which formal usage orients, sional discourse or higher education). These countries Somalia reflecting the variety of English used by the former colo- can be regarded as in the process of shifting towards L2 Sudan nial power. In the majority of countries this is British status. In existing L2 areas, a slight increase in the Surinam (Figure 5), with some exceptions such as the Philippines proportion of the population speaking English (for Sweden and Liberia, which orient to US English. example, in India, Pakistan, Nigeria and the Switzerland Philippines), would significantly increase the global total United Arab Emirates The foreign-language areas of secondlanguage speakers. The number of people learning English has in recent In many L2 areas, there is a trend for professional Table 6 Countries in years risen rapidly. This, in part, reflects changes in and middle classes who are bilingual in English (a transition from EFL to L2 public policy, such as lowering the age at which English rapidly growing social group in developing countries) to status is taught in schools. Like L2, the EFL category spans a adopt English as the language of the home. English is wide range of competence, from barely functional in thus acquiring new first-language speakers outside the Table 5 (below) basic communication to near native fluency. The main traditional ‘native-speaking’ countries. Yet the number Second-language speakers of distinction between a fluent EFL speaker and an L2 of new second-language speakers probably greatly offsets English (in thousands) speaker depends on whether English is used within the the children in L2 families who grow up as first-language (*indicates a larger number speaker’s community (country, family) and thus forms speakers – a trend shown graphically in Figure 4. of L1 English speakers) Australia* 2,084 Hong Kong 1,860 Nepal 5,927 Solomon Is 135 Bahamas* 25 India 37,000 New Zealand* 150 South Africa 10,000 Bangladesh 3,100 Irish Republic* 190 Nigeria 43,000 Sri Lanka 1,850 Belize* 30 Jamaica* 50 Northern Marianas 50 Surinam 150 Bhutan 60 Kenya 2,576 Pakistan 16,000 Swaziland 40 Botswana 620 Kiribati 20 Palau 16,300 Tanzania 3,000 Brunei 104 Lesotho 488 Papua New Guinea 28,000 Tonga 30 Cameroon 6,600 Liberia 2,000 Philippines 36,400 Tuvulu 600 Canada* 6,000 Malawi 517 Puerto Rico 1,746 Uganda 2,000 Cook Is 2 Malaysia 5,984 Rwanda 24 UK* 1,100 Dominica 12 Malta 86 St Lucia* 22 US* 30,000 Fiji 160 Marshall Is 28 Samoa (American) 56 US Virgin Is* 10 Gambia 33 Mauritius 167 Samoa (Western) 86 Vanuatu 160 Ghana 1,153 Micronesia 15 Seychelles 11 Zambia 1,000 Guam 92 Namibia 300 Sierra Leone 3,830 Zimbabwe 3,300 Guyana* 30 Nauru 9,400 Singapore 1,046 The Future of English? 11
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