This pdf includes the following topics:- Sets and set operations Basic discrete structures Representing sets Important sets in discrete math Russell’s paradox
1. CS 441 Discrete Mathematics for CS Lecture 7 Sets and set operations Milos Hauskrecht 5329 Sennott Square CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht Basic discrete structures • Discrete math = – study of the discrete structures used to represent discrete objects • Many discrete structures are built using sets – Sets = collection of objects Examples of discrete structures built with the help of sets: • Combinations • Relations • Graphs CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht 1
2. Set • Definition: A set is a (unordered) collection of objects. These objects are sometimes called elements or members of the set. (Cantor's naive definition) • Examples: – Vowels in the English alphabet V = { a, e, i, o, u } – First seven prime numbers. X = { 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17 } CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht Representing sets Representing a set by: 1) Listing (enumerating) the members of the set. 2) Definition by property, using the set builder notation {x| x has property P}. • Even integers between 50 and 63. 1) E = {50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62} 2) E = {x| 50 <= x < 63, x is an even integer} If enumeration of the members is hard we often use ellipses. Example: a set of integers between 1 and 100 • A= {1,2,3 …, 100} CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht 2
3. Important sets in discrete math • Natural numbers: – N = {0,1,2,3, …} • Integers – Z = {…, -2,-1,0,1,2, …} • Positive integers – Z+ = {1,2, 3.…} • Rational numbers – Q = {p/q | p Z, q Z, q 0} • Real numbers – R CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht Russell’s paradox Cantor's naive definition of sets leads to Russell's paradox: • Let S = { x | x x }, is a set of sets that are not members of themselves. • Question: Where does the set S belong to? – Is S S or S S? • Cases – S S ?: S does not satisfy the condition so it must hold that S S (or S S does not hold) – S S ?: S is included in the set S and hence S S does not hold • A paradox: we cannot decide if S belongs to S or not • Russell’s answer: theory of types – used for sets of sets CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht 3
4. Equality Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements. • {1,2,3} = {3,1,2} = {1,2,1,3,2} Note: Duplicates don't contribute anything new to a set, so remove them. The order of the elements in a set doesn't contribute anything new. Example: Are {1,2,3,4} and {1,2,2,4} equal? No! CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht Special sets • Special sets: – The universal set is denoted by U: the set of all objects under the consideration. – The empty set is denoted as or { }. CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht 4
5. Venn diagrams • A set can be visualized using Venn Diagrams: – V={ A, B, C } U A B C CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht A Subset • Definition: A set A is said to be a subset of B if and only if every element of A is also an element of B. We use A B to indicate A is a subset of B. U B A • Alternate way to define A is a subset of B: x (x A) (x B) CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht 5
6. Empty set/Subset properties Theorem S • Empty set is a subset of any set. • Recall the definition of a subset: all elements of a set A must be also elements of B: x (x A x B). • We must show the following implication holds for any S x (x x S) • Since the empty set does not contain any element, x is always False • Then the implication is always True. End of proof CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht Subset properties Theorem: S S • Any set S is a subset of itself • the definition of a subset says: all elements of a set A must be also elements of B: x (x A x B). • Applying this to S we get: • x (x S x S) which is trivially True • End of proof Note on equivalence: • Two sets are equal if each is a subset of the other set. CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht 6
7. A proper subset Definition: A set A is said to be a proper subset of B if and only if A B and A B. We denote that A is a proper subset of B with the notation A B. U B A CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht A proper subset Definition: A set A is said to be a proper subset of B if and only if A B and A B. We denote that A is a proper subset of B with the notation A B. U B A Example: A={1,2,3} B ={1,2,3,4,5} Is: A B ? Yes. CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht 7
8. Cardinality Definition: Let S be a set. If there are exactly n distinct elements in S, where n is a nonnegative integer, we say S is a finite set and that n is the cardinality of S. The cardinality of S is denoted by | S |. Examples: • V={1 2 3 4 5} |V|=5 • A={1,2,3,4, …, 20} |A| =20 • ||=0 CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht Infinite set Definition: A set is infinite if it is not finite. • The set of natural numbers is an infinite set. • N = {1, 2, 3, ... } • The set of reals is an infinite set. CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht 8
9. Power set Definition: Given a set S, the power set of S is the set of all subsets of S. The power set is denoted by P(S). • Assume an empty set • What is the power set of ? P() = { } • What is the cardinality of P() ? | P() | = 1. • Assume set {1} • P( {1} ) = { , {1} } • |P({1})| = 2 CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht Power set • P( {1} ) = { , {1} } • |P({1})| = 2 • Assume {1,2} • P( {1,2} ) = { , {1}, {2}, {1,2} } • |P({1,2} )| =4 • Assume {1,2,3} • P({1,2,3}) = {, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3} } • |P({1,2,3} | = 8 • If S is a set with |S| = n then | P(S) | = ? CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht 9
10. Power set • P( {1} ) = { , {1} } • |P({1})| = 2 • Assume {1,2} • P( {1,2} ) = { , {1}, {2}, {1,2} } • |P({1,2} )| =4 • Assume {1,2,3} • P({1,2,3}) = {, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3} } • |P({1,2,3} | = 8 • If S is a set with |S| = n then | P(S) | = 2n CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht N-tuple • Sets are used to represent unordered collections. • Ordered-n tuples are used to represent an ordered collection. Definition: An ordered n-tuple (x1, x2, ..., xN) is the ordered collection that has x1 as its first element, x2 as its second element, ..., and xN as its N-th element, N 2. Example: y x • Coordinates of a point in the 2-D plane (12, 16) CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht 10
11. Cartesian product Definition: Let S and T be sets. The Cartesian product of S and T, denoted by S x T, is the set of all ordered pairs (s,t), where s S and t T. Hence, • S x T = { (s,t) | s S t T}. • S = {1,2} and T = {a,b,c} • S x T = { (1,a), (1,b), (1,c), (2,a), (2,b), (2,c) } • T x S = { (a,1), (a, 2), (b,1), (b,2), (c,1), (c,2) } • Note: S x T T x S !!!! CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht Cardinality of the Cartesian product • |S x T| = |S| * |T|. • A= {John, Peter, Mike} • B ={Jane, Ann, Laura} • A x B= {(John, Jane),(John, Ann) , (John, Laura), (Peter, Jane), (Peter, Ann) , (Peter, Laura) , (Mike, Jane) , (Mike, Ann) , (Mike, Laura)} • |A x B| = 9 • |A|=3, |B|=3 |A| |B|= 9 Definition: A subset of the Cartesian product A x B is called a relation from the set A to the set B. CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht 11
12. Set operations Definition: Let A and B be sets. The union of A and B, denoted by A B, is the set that contains those elements that are either in A or in B, or in both. • Alternate: A B = { x | x A x B }. U B A • Example: • A = {1,2,3,6} B = { 2,4,6,9} • A B = { 1,2,3,4,6,9 } CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht Set operations Definition: Let A and B be sets. The intersection of A and B, denoted by A B, is the set that contains those elements that are in both A and B. • Alternate: A B = { x | x A x B }. U B A Example: • A = {1,2,3,6} B = { 2, 4, 6, 9} • A B = { 2, 6 } CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht 12
13. Disjoint sets Definition: Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is empty. • Alternate: A and B are disjoint if and only if A B = . U B A • A={1,2,3,6} B={4,7,8} Are these disjoint? • Yes. • AB= CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht Cardinality of the set union Cardinality of the set union. • |A B| = |A| + |B| - |A B| U B A • Why this formula? CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht 13
14. Cardinality of the set union Cardinality of the set union. • |A B| = |A| + |B| - |A B| U B A • Why this formula? Correct for an over-count. • More general rule: – The principle of inclusion and exclusion. CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht Set difference Definition: Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B, denoted by A - B, is the set containing those elements that are in A but not in B. The difference of A and B is also called the complement of B with respect to A. • Alternate: A - B = { x | x A x B }. U B A Example: A= {1,2,3,5,7} B = {1,5,6,8} • A - B ={2,3,7} CS 441 Discrete mathematics for CS M. Hauskrecht 14
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