Educational psychologists have developed theories of learning based on three main paradigms – behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism. Behaviourists believe that the behaviour of learners is a response to their past, and behavioural modification is the main purpose of education. According to cognitivism, the behaviour of learners is the result of his/her cognition and the main aim of education is to change the cognitive schemas
1. GENERAL ARTICLE Influence of Learning Theories on Science Education∗ Sudhakar C. Agarkar Educational psychologists have developed theories of learn- ing based on three main paradigms – behaviourism, cogni- tivism and constructivism. Behaviourists believe that the be- haviour of learners is a response to their past, and behavioural modification is the main purpose of education. According to cognitivists, the behaviour of learners is the result of his/her cognition, and the main aim of education is to change the cog- nitive schemas. Constructivists, on the other hand, believe that learners construct their own knowledge, and the objec- tive of education is to provide opportunities to gain knowl- Sudhakar C Agarkar holds a PhD in Science Education edge. The understanding of how children acquire knowledge and has had a long has influenced teaching-learning processes in the classroom association with the Homi significantly. The role of teachers has changed from the per- Bhabha Centre for Science son imparting information to a person facilitating the con- Education of TIFR. He works in the area of science and struction of knowledge. Teaching science has also been in- mathematics education, fluenced by the changing psychological ideas about teaching focusing on the education of and learning. The information age that dawned in the 20th socially deprived students. He century necessitated the acquisition of information through has developed Remedial Instructional Strategy (RIS) informal modes like listening to the radio, watching televi- to overcome learning hurdles sion or surfing the world wide web. Developments in digital faced by disadvantaged technology have, thus, changed the way students make mean- students and is involved in ing of given information. All these changes have forced the designing Open Educational Resources (OER) in school educationists to design appropriate methods of teaching and science and mathematics. learning. A journey into the changes that learning theories Presently, he is occupied with have witnessed influencing the teaching of school science is the development of a Mobile outlined in this article. App to make the learning of science entertaining, engaging and empowering. ∗ DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12045-019-0848-7 RESONANCE | August 2019 847
2. GENERAL ARTICLE Introduction Keywords Science, as a discipline of formal study, got its place in school Learning theory, science educa- curriculum towards the last quarter of the 19th century. The found- tion, behaviourism, cognitivism, ing fathers of science education attempted to teach it along with constructivism, mastery learning, acquisition of knowledge, reme- other subjects in schools in the same style. As science developed, dial education. and more science content was included in the curriculum, the science educators took cognizance of the developments in psy- chology. Twentieth-century educational psychologists came out with theories of learning that explained the way children acquired skills and knowledge. These theories have influenced the teach- ing of science significantly. Learning theories are based on three main psychological paradigms – behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism. It would be useful to understand the basics of these three approaches and explore the influence they had on sci- ence education. Behaviourism In the beginning of 20th-century, educational psychology as a discipline took shape. Psychologists in those days were busy understanding the process of learning. They came out with the theory that took into account the behaviour of different animals. There were many psychologists from different countries who con- tributed to this development. Four of them needs special mention: Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), Edward Thorndike (1874–1949), J B Watson (1878–1958) and B F Skinner (1904–1990). In this ar- Behaviourism paradigm ticle, we do not wish to go into the details of their individual focuses on observable contributions. Instead, we will try to understand the gist of this behaviours. Behaviour approach and how it has affected the teaching of science in the theorists define learning as the acquisition of new classrooms. behaviour based on environmental Behaviourism paradigm focuses on observable behaviours. Be- conditions. haviour theorists define learning as the acquisition of new be- haviour based on environmental conditions. They identify con- ditioning as a universal learning process. There are two types of 848 RESONANCE | August 2019
3. GENERAL ARTICLE conditioning – classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus is paired with a previously neutral stimulus. Operant conditioning, also called instrumental condi- tioning, is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour. As per the guidelines of behaviourist thinkers, the classroom in- teraction focussed mainly on behaviour modification. Classroom instruction where the teacher transmits information to the learner was considered to be an effective mode of teaching. It was nec- essary to ensure that the child acquired all the knowledge the teacher wanted to provide. Techniques to achieve such profi- ciency (mastery learning) were also suggested. According to the behaviourist thinkers, science teaching could be equated to mak- ing children familiar with scientific information made available to us by scientists, without attention to the method of science used by them. Some methods that were born out of this thinking are outlined below. Transmission of Information In this mode of interaction, the science teacher communicated sci- entific information to his/her students orally. Thus, the rules and laws such as Newton’s laws of motion, Mendeleev’s law of peri- odicity, Mendel’s law of heredity, etc., were read out or told in the classrooms. Students were expected to listen to the teacher care- fully and remember them. The lecture mode classroom proceed- ings would sometimes be supported by practical demonstrations. For example, the teacher would demonstrate in the classroom that the like poles of the magnet repel while unlike poles attract each other. This mode of teaching science is still practised in many of the Indian schools. Practice was considered a major tool to ensure knowledge fix- ation. Sometimes it took the shape of rote learning. Scientific laws were, thus, learned by heart and reproduced in the examina- tions. As the interaction time in the school was limited, students RESONANCE | August 2019 849
4. GENERAL ARTICLE were often tasked with practice as homework. For example, if a child was to master how to balance a chemical equation, (s)he Remedial education was expected to practice it a number of times at home. Repeti- cannot be limited to tion of the statements without committing any mistake was often conceptual learning. It construed as learning. Higher-order skills like understanding, ap- demands the development of learning plication, interpretation, etc., were hardly given any importance skills. For many in the teaching of science. students, the lack of learning prerequisites like motivation to learn, reading comprehension, Remedial Instruction poor mathematical skills, etc., are the main Remedial instruction applies to students who fail to fulfil the ex- learning hurdles. pectations of a teacher. As the name suggests, the focus here is on diagnosis and remediation. An attempt is made to diag- nose the gap in understanding when a child has not reached the level of mastery learning expected. This thinking has resulted in the development of diagnostic testing. These tests have been prepared by dividing a major concept into small sequential sub- concepts and framing questions to see if the child understands each of them. For example, the main concept of evolution would be subdivided into small concepts and questions framed on each of them. Analysis of the answers given by a child would enable the teacher to understand the nature of help that (s)he needs. Remedial education cannot be limited to conceptual learning. It demands the development of learning skills. For many students, the lack of learning prerequisites like motivation to learn, reading comprehension, poor mathematical skills, etc., are the main learn- ing hurdles. They need to be developed so that students can ben- efit from classroom proceedings. A project entitled Talent Search and Nurture among the Underprivileged was undertaken at Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education (TIFR) to understand learn- ing hurdles faced by students from socially deprived homes and to design appropriate remedial inputs to overcome them. The work carried out for about a decade (1980–90) showed that remedial in- struction offered taking into account the learning difficulties faced by the students can not only compensate for poor initial prepara- tion but also for social deprivation [1]. 850 RESONANCE | August 2019
5. GENERAL ARTICLE CBL Packages A large number of coaching classes mushroomed in India to pre- pare students for examinations. With the development of tech- nology, new gadgets were brought into use for practice and as- sessment in schools. Computer-based learning (CBL) packages were developed to facilitate repetition and practice of the content discussed in the classroom. Software programmes that enabled self-assessment were developed. A student could take the com- puter test and find out where (s)he stands in criterion-referenced testing. Some programmes even gave feedback to the students to know the correct answer to a question. In a short span of time CBL packages were prepared to teach a variety of concepts in physics, chemistry as well as in biology. Study material on CDs was also made available on a large scale to the teaching community. With the availability of internet fa- cility, the use of such packages increased substantially. Although the CBL packages proliferated, their utility as a teaching aid in science remained doubtful. In fact, some thinkers claimed that these packages debilitated science learning instead of facilitating. Sometime close to 1960, psychologists realised the limitations of Sometime close to 1960, the behaviourist approach and started focussing on the growth of psychologists realised the brain. Piaget, a leading cognitive psychologist from Switzer- the limitations of the behaviourist approach land played a crucial role in this aspect. He emphasised on two and started focussing on main functions – organisation and adaptation – in learning. Or- the growth of the brain. ganisation refers to the fact that all cognitive structures are inter- related, and that any new knowledge must be fitted into the ex- isting system. Adaptation refers to the tendency of the organism to fit with its environment in ways that promote survival. Based on his work with children, he came out with the four-stage model of development: 1. sensory-motor (0–2 years), 2. pre-operational (2–7 years), 3. concrete operational (7–11 years) and 4. formal operational (11+ and more). He advocated that the teacher should be conscious of the developmental level of the child, and the con- RESONANCE | August 2019 851
6. GENERAL ARTICLE tent to be taught should be appropriate to the stage at which the child stands. The teacher, in the opinion of Piaget, should first analyse the task to determine the level of reasoning required for its successful solution. He went further to suggest that the teach- ers should motivate learners by emphasizing problems and trying to jolt them out of their ordinary way of looking. Whenever pos- sible, Piaget said emphatically, to have learners perform some rel- evant physical action on an object. This thinking had a profound effect on classroom pedagogy. Cognitive theories As stated above, cognitive theories emphasize making knowl- emphasize making edge meaningful and helping learners organize new information knowledge meaningful in his/her cognitive schema. To make instruction effective, it must and helping learners organize new be based on the student’s existing mental structures. It should information in his/her help learners to connect new information with existing knowledge cognitive schema. in a meaningful way. Analogies and metaphors are examples of this type of cognitive strategy. Other cognitive strategies may in- clude the use of concept mapping and advance organisers. The spread of cognitivism among science educators had a profound effect on the teaching of science in schools. New methods were developed and tried on a small scale. Science education journals received a large number of articles based on these methods in the 1970s and 80s. Activity-based Teaching Science education, influenced by behaviouristic thinking, was lim- ited to theoretical discussions providing declarative knowledge. Soon, however, science educators realized the importance of pro- cedural knowledge. As a result, laboratories were built in schools where students were given an opportunity to perform simple ac- tivities [2]. Here, the focus was on developing laboratory skills among the students so that they can design and perform experi- ments on their own. A project initiated by Nuffield Foundation in England can be cited as an example of activity-based teaching of science. In this 852 RESONANCE | August 2019
7. GENERAL ARTICLE project, the academicians from different disciplines worked on developing a laboratory programme for effective teaching of sci- ence. A laboratory manual was made available to the teachers in print form. The impact of this project has been long-lasting on the teaching of science [3]. Even today, some of the experiments developed by experts working on the Nuffield Science Teaching Project are used by practising teachers. A group of scientists in India initiated a Hoshangabad Science Teaching Project (HSTP) based on the idea of learning through activities. Textbooks were prepared and made available to a large number of schools in cen- tral India. Training courses were conducted to acquaint the teach- ers with the new philosophy. Assessment of this project showed a positive impact on the understanding of the students [4]. Inquiry Method Advocated by Suchmann, the inquiry method focuses on creating Advocated by puzzling situations for students to start enquiring. By encour- Suchmann, the inquiry aging students to inquire into day-to-day problems, they are en- method focuses on creating puzzling trusted with greater opportunity and responsibility of self-learning. situations for students to This teaching method suggests that the teachers should not pro- start enquiring. By vide ready-made answers but should encourage students to seek encouraging students to inquire into day-to-day answers themselves. Teachers should interact closely and spend problems, they are time with students analysing their inquiry strategies, and help entrusted with greater them find answers to their questions. This mode of teaching is opportunity and in line with the development of science as immense knowledge responsibility of self-learning. can be gained by asking questions about the occurrence of natu- ral phenomena. Children, by nature, are curious. They have a variety of questions on their minds about many things around them. Unfortunately, our education system hardly provides an opportunity to satisfy this curiosity. Given an opportunity, students question many as- pects relevant to daily life. Providing direct answers to their ques- tions would satisfy their curiosity temporarily. Instead, showing them the method to seek answers equip them to gain new knowl- edge [5]. RESONANCE | August 2019 853
8. GENERAL ARTICLE Expository Teaching Ausubel, the advocator of this method, held the view that learning is meaningful only if a learner can relate it to the ideas that (s)he already understands. To facilitate such a linkage, he suggested the organization of lessons according to the process of progressive differentiation, moving from general to the specific. He coined the phrase ‘advance organisers’ which essentially mean either to activate students’ reception system or to equip them with the nec- essary receptors they do not have. Relating the concepts and principles learned early in the course to the ideas presented later in the course is very important in this method of teaching. For example, recalling the fact that liquid water takes away heat during evaporation is essential in explain- ing why water is used in extinguishing fire. Lesson planning by the teacher plays an important role in this method of teaching. Teachers are expected to plan their inputs and activities in such a way that students acquire knowledge in a step-by-step manner, relating new information to what they already know. This proce- dure leads to a better conceptual understanding of science. Constructivism Constructivism paradigm Constructivism paradigm believes that knowledge is constructed believes that knowledge through one’s own personal experiences and interactions with the is constructed through outside world. Thus, the learners take up an active role in the one’s own personal experiences and construction of knowledge, and teachers facilitate this endeavour. interactions with the Two types of constructivism emerged in the late 1970s. Lev Vy- outside world. Thus, the gotsky introduced social constructivism, in which social interac- learners take up an active tion with others was deemed helpful to the learner in giving mean- role in the construction of knowledge, and ing to information. Vygotsky noted that learners can develop a teachers facilitate this certain level of meaning on their own, but it can grow even greater endeavour. after interacting with classmates and instructors. Thus, Vygot- syian approach takes the socio-cultural context into account and advocate close teacher-pupil interaction as a crucial component of learning. In 1985, Jean Piaget introduced cognitive construc- 854 RESONANCE | August 2019
9. GENERAL ARTICLE tivism, in which knowledge is considered to be constructed by either assimilation or accommodation. In assimilation, incoming information is associated with the existing schema. When incom- ing information does not match the existing schema, then it must be changed to accommodate this conflict. Constructivism is best utilized when learners take control of the learning situation, such as in problem-based learning. As learn- ers engage themselves in an activity like this, they develop an understanding of the importance of the problem, comprehend the relevance of the topic, and construct knowledge through their ex- periences. It is more important to focus on the whole rather than the individual parts in constructivist learning. Constructivism is sometimes misconstrued as a theory that compels students to rein- vent the wheel. It, however, implores students to attempt to learn how it functions and apply this to real-world learning. The formulation of learning theories based on constructivist think- ing had a notable influence on the teaching of science [6]. A large number of innovative projects were undertaken all over the world to develop methods and materials for effective teaching of science based on this thinking. The constructivist approach attempts to provide opportunities for interaction to the learners so that they can derive meaning out of it. The role of a teacher is to create situations and provide facilities to help their students in their en- deavour of gaining knowledge. In this context, three methods can be mentioned prominently: project-based learning, discovery ap- proach and conceptual change method. Project-based Learning Project-based learning allows students to learn by doing and ap- plying ideas. Students engage in real-world activities that are sim- ilar to the activities that adult professionals engage in. A project- based classroom allows students to investigate questions, propose hypotheses and explanations, discuss their ideas, challenge the ideas of others, and try out new ideas. It is drastically different RESONANCE | August 2019 855
10. GENERAL ARTICLE from direct teaching methods. In this method of teaching, the entire science syllabus is divided into projects/activities to be carried out by the students. The teacher provides adequate resources to the students to complete their work. A project is usually assigned to a small group of stu- dents so that they can collaborate with each other in completing the task and acquire new knowledge. Adoption of this method, however, adds to the workload of the teacher. A lot of prepara- tory work is required on the part of the teacher to motivate the students to undertake the task. The teacher needs to identify suit- able projects that can sustain the interest of students and facilitate their understanding [7]. Hence, this mode of teaching is not yet very popular among teaching communities. Instead of covering the whole syllabus through the project method, teachers generally tend to suggest some projects on which the students can work in small groups. Discovery Method Bruner, a well-known American psychologist, advocated the dis- covery approach for teaching science. As a first step, he sug- gested teaching the basic structure of the discipline along with the relationship of the most important concepts and principles. Once this scaffolding is ready, discovery learning techniques can be used to motivate students, help them retain information and teach them how to learn. In this style of lesson planning, the dis- cussion should begin with a problem. As the students attempt to deal with the problem, they not only learn the basics concepts involved but also acquire skills to gain knowledge. Discovery method has Discovery method has become quite popular in science education become quite popular in globally. A variety of projects have been undertaken to try out science education this pedagogy on small as well as large scales. It was suggested globally. A variety of projects have been that this method leads to insightful learning as advocated by Wolf- undertaken to try out this gang Kohler. In India, the Hoshangabad Science Teaching Project pedagogy on small as (HSTP) that was initiated as activity-based teaching attempted to well as large scales. implement the ‘discovery approach’. It provided opportunities 856 RESONANCE | August 2019
11. GENERAL ARTICLE to learners to conduct activities, collect data and discuss its rel- evance to everyday life. HSTP was a widely appreciated project and led to large scale expansion in the state [8]. This philosophy advocated that the child should play the role of scientists in the school laboratory, and should collect datum, analyse it and arrive at a conclusion using scientific methods. There are, of course, limitations to this method. One is not sure that the students would discover the same principles as was done by great scientists like Newton, Galileo, Faraday, Mendeleev or Darwin. Hence, there is a need for constant supervision and guidance by the teacher. Conceptual Change Children go on constructing knowledge based on the experiences they gain in their everyday lives. The conclusions they draw or the rules that they perceive about Nature may many times not match with the accepted scientific facts. Such ideas are con- sidered as misconceptions or alternative conceptions [9]. Re- search shows that almost all primary school children believe in the Earth-centric universe. It is the duty of the teacher to ensure that such misconceptions are clarified through appropriate expla- nations and activities. Similarly, a large number of students think that it is the heart that produces blood. It takes time to convince them that the heart is only a pump, and the blood is produced in bone marrows. One of the major influences of constructivistic thinking on sci- One of the major ence education has been the study of alternative concepts. Initi- influences of constructivistic thinking ated by Rosalind Driver, a large number of researchers have taken on science education has up studies in this area and have come out with alternative con- been the study of ceptions possessed by students growing in different cultures. An alternative concepts. important outcome of their work has been the identification of Initiated by Rosalind Driver, a large number of misconceptions among students and the development of methods researchers have taken and material to bring about conceptual changes [10]. The teacher up studies in this area following this method has to first identify preconceived ideas of and have come out with students and see whether they match with accepted notions. If alternative conceptions possessed by students not, provide explanations and inputs to bring about appropriate growing in different changes in their understanding. The conceptual change model cultures. RESONANCE | August 2019 857
12. GENERAL ARTICLE was tested in some selected areas. The special issue of Science and Education [11] was brought out in July 2014 by compil- ing the experiences of different science educators working in this area. Conclusions and Implications The 20th century has The 20th century has witnessed a paradigm shift in school edu- witnessed a paradigm cation [12]. This shift is due to the influence of changing ideas shift in school education. in educational psychology. As the learning theory moved from This shift is due to the influence of changing behaviourism to constructivism, classroom interaction also wit- ideas in educational nessed changes [13]. It must be noted that new learning theory psychology. has not made earlier theories obsolete. The learning theory to be used for classroom interaction depends on the topic to be taught and the objective to be achieved. If a certain skill is to be devel- oped among the learners, then a behaviouristic approach would prove useful. Instead, if the focus is on the cognitive develop- ment of schema, then a cognitivistic approach should be adopted. If the purpose is to make the child an independent learner then one needs to adopt a constructivistic approach. It is the judicious combination of these theories that will lead to the overall devel- opment of young children. Science education as a field of research got established in recent years [13]. It is an interdisciplinary subject on the borderline of science, psychology and sociology. Science educators looked at the teaching-learning process as a branch of science [14]. They also took cognizance of developments in other areas like sociol- ogy, economics, technology, etc., along with science. Taking into account these developments, they have designed effective teach- ing methods and have developed appropriate teaching-learning materials. They need to be passed on to practising teachers who have the responsibility for preparing students to face the chal- lenges of the 21st century. As Hodson [16] says, “this is a time for action and efforts must be made to change classroom prac- tices by educating the teachers both through pre-service as well as through in-service training courses”. 858 RESONANCE | August 2019
13. GENERAL ARTICLE Suggested Reading [1] S C Agarkar, Combating Learning Hurdles Arising Out of Social Deprivation In Yew Jin Lee (Ed.) Handbook of Science Education Research in Asia, Dor- drecht: Springer Publishers, 2010. [2] David Layton, A Victorian Sharman of Science, New Scientists, Vol.75, No.1067, 1977. [3] Sarah Lock, Capacity for Change: A Review of the Nuffield Foundation Com- monwealth Programme, London: Nuffield Foundation, 2010. [4] K Mukund, The Hoshangabad Science Teaching Project, Economic and Politi- cal Weekly, Vol.23 No.42, 1988. [5] S C Agarkar, Inquisitiveness Among Underprivileged Students: Analysis and Implications, Journal of Education and Psychology, Vol.3, Nos.III & IV, 1998. [6] R F Gunstone, P Fensham and R T White, The Content of Science: A Construc- tivistic Approach to its Teaching and Learning, London: Falmer Press, 1994. [7] Phyllis C Blumenfeld, Elliott Soloway, Ronald Marks, Joseph Krajick, Mark Guzdial and A Palincsar, Motivating Project-based Learning: Sustaining the Doing, Supporting the Learning, Educational Psychologists, Vol.26, Nos.3 & 4, 1991. [8] Sadhana Saxena and Kamal Mahendroo, Constructivism and Science Educa- tion: Revisiting Hoshangabad Science Teaching Project, In Chitra Natarajan, Sugra Chunawala (Eds.) Proceedings of Episteme 2, Mumbai: HBCSE, TIFR, 2006. [9] Rosalind Driver, Ann Squires, Peter Rushworth and Valerie Wood-Robinson, Making Sense of Secondary Science Research into Children’s Ideas, London: RoutledgeFalmer, 2004. [10] Renders Duit and David Treagust, Conceptual Change – A Powerful Frame- work for Improving Science Teaching and Learning, International Journal of Science Education, 25:6, pp.671–688, 2003. [11] Special Issue on Modelling Conceptual Change, Science and Education, Vol.23, No.7, Springer Netherlands, 2014. [12] Y C Cheng, K T Tsui, K W Chow and N M Mok, Subject Teaching and Teacher Education in the New Century: Research and Innovation, Hong Kong: HK Institute of Education, 2002. [13] Renders Duit and David Treagust David, Learning in science – From Be- Address for Correspondence haviourism Towards Social Constructivism and Beyond, In B J Fraser and K Sudhakar C. Agarkar G Tobin (Eds.), International Handbook of Science Education, Dordrecht, NL: VPM’s Academy of Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998. International Education and [14] Peter Fensham, Defining and Identity: The Evolution of Science Education as Research a Field of Research, Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer Academic Publisher, 2004. Thane, Maharashtra, India. [15] Michael Shayer and Philip Adey, Towards Science of Science Teaching: Cogni- Email: tive Development and Curriculum Demands, London: Heinemann Educational [email protected] Books, 1987. [16] Derek Hodson, Time for Action: Science Education for an Alternative Future, International Journal of Science Education, 25:6, 2003. RESONANCE | August 2019 859
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