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Culture and Ethics that can facilitate online learning

Contributed by:
Steve
Through the Otis e-Workshop1, we aimed to build a learning community of online practitioners (academics, faculty, lecturers, instructors, staff developers, facilitators, and trainers) from education and business who could learn from each other. The e-workshop attracted over one hundred participants from seventeen countries worldwide, including sixty-nine authors, facilitators, rapporteurs, and organizers.
1. Online Tutoring e-Book
Editor Carol Higgison
Chapter 6
Culture and Ethics:
Facilitating Online
Learning
Michel Labour, Universite de Valeniennes, France
Charles Juwah, The Robert Gordon University, UK
Nancy White, White Circle Associates, USA
Sarah Tolley, The Open University, UK
The Online Tutoring Skills Project is funded by the Scottish Higher Education Funding Council
Online Tutoring Skills e-Workshop, 8-12 May 2000, T6-03
©2001 Heriot-Watt University, The Robert Gordon University, Michel Labour, Charles Juwah, Nancy White and Sarah Tolley
2. Online Tutoring e-Book 6 Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning
Contact information
This document has been published by OTiS (the Online Tutoring Skills Project) based at:
The Institute for Computer Based Learning, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, EH14 4AS
and The Centre for Open and Distance Learning, The Robert Gordon University, Schoolhill,
Aberdeen, AB10 1FR.
URL: http://otis.scotcit.ac.uk/onlinebook
Date: February 2001
First edition
ISBN 0-9540036-2-4
Copyright
©2000 Heriot-Watt University, The Robert Gordon University and the original authors
All rights reserved. Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or
criticism or review, as permitted by the Copyright, Designs and Patent Act 1988, this
publication or any part thereof may not be reproduced stored or transmitted in any form or by
any means without the prior written consent of the publishers. Except that (a) for courses of
instruction or distribution within UK higher education institutions this publication or parts
thereof may be copied without charge, provided that the source and publisher's copyright are
indicated in any such reproduction, (b) for courses of instruction by any of the participants in
the Online Tutoring Skills e-Workshop this publication or parts thereof may be copied
without charge, provided that the source and publisher's copyright are indicated in any such
reproduction and (c) authors retain their personal right to re-use the material in future versions
or collections of their own work.
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information in this book, the
publishers wish to emphasise that they cannot accept any liability for any errors which
remain. Further, the views expressed in each of the chapters are primarily those of the stated
authors and whilst the publishers endorse the value of all the contributions, the views
expressed are not necessarily those of the publishers. Please notify us of any factual errors, for
correction in future editions.
OTiS (the Online Tutoring Skills Project) is funded by The Scottish Higher Education
Funding Council under the ScotCIT Programme (http://www.scotcit.ac.uk).
http://otis.scotcit.ac.uk/onlinebook/ 6-ii ©2001, T6-03
3. Online Tutoring e-Book 6 Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning
Preface
Through the OTiS e-Workshop1 we aimed to build a learning community of online
practitioners (academics, faculty, lecturers, instructors, staff developers,
facilitators and trainers) from education and business who could learn from each
other. The e-workshop attracted over one hundred participants from seventeen
countries worldwide, including sixty-nine authors, facilitators, rapporteurs and
organisers.
The cultural diversity these participants brought to the e-workshop greatly
enriched our experiences and, I hope, our practice. We encountered first-hand
some of the challenges and opportunities presented by the international
dimension of an online learning community. The participants addressed issues of
language, culture and ethics through discussion and case studies, negotiating and
clarifying meaning to build a greater understanding and knowledge of
experiences and skills, informed by a range of perspectives.
The group, which came together to consider and discuss issues of Culture and
Ethics, was one of the most dynamic and productive of the e-workshop. They
identified and documented our experiences of effective practices that are
presented in this chapter. Our success in achieving it is due to the drive and
commitment of the participants.
Four participants from the e-workshop, Michel Labour, Charles Juwah, Nancy
White and Sarah Tolley authored this chapter giving freely of their time and
effort. Two of them are based in the UK, one based in the USA and the fourth
in France. Their efforts were entirely voluntary and the collaboration was
achieved without them ever meeting.
My sincere thanks to all the participants and, in particular, the authors whose
commitment extended long beyond the end of the e-workshop.
Carol Higgison
(editor)
The Online Tutoring Skills Project is funded by the Scottish Higher Education Funding Council.
1
The OTiS International e-Workshop on Developing Online Tutoring Skills was held between 8–12
May 2000. It was organised by Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh and The Robert Gordon University,
Aberdeen, UK.
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4. Online Tutoring e-Book 6 Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning
Contents
Preface...................................................................................................................... 6.iii
Contents.....................................................................................................................6.iv
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................6.1
2. Culture and Ethics..............................................................................................6.2
2.1 What is culture? .................................................................................................... 6.2
2.2 What are ethics?.................................................................................................... 6.2
2.3 How is culture expressed online?......................................................................... 6.2
2.3.1 Text based communication.............................................................................................. 6.2
2.3.2 Images ............................................................................................................................. 6.4
2.4 The value of diversity............................................................................................ 6.4
3. Self-awareness and online presence ..................................................................6.5
3.1 Action Tips............................................................................................................. 6.7
4. Language.............................................................................................................6.8
4.1 Which language to use? .............................................................................................. 6.8
4.1.1 English as the common language .................................................................................... 6.8
4.1.2 Accommodating language differences ............................................................................ 6.9
4.1.3 Native and non-native speakers ..................................................................................... 6.10
4.1.4 Supporting multiple languages ...................................................................................... 6.12
4.2 Style of communication ...................................................................................... 6.13
4.2.1 Formal or informal communication? ............................................................................. 6.13
4.2.2 Status of the written text................................................................................................ 6.13
4.3 Action Tips........................................................................................................... 6.14
5. Silences and Humour as online interaction issues .........................................6.17
5.1 Silences ................................................................................................................. 6.17
5.2 Action Tips (silence)............................................................................................ 6.18
5.3 Humour................................................................................................................ 6.18
5.4 Action Tips (humour) ......................................................................................... 6.19
6. Tutor and Learner roles ...................................................................................6.20
6.1 Brief pedagogy of online learning...................................................................... 6.20
6.2 Tutor-student relationship ................................................................................. 6.20
6.3 Diversity of learners............................................................................................ 6.21
6.4 Action Tips........................................................................................................... 6.22
7 Using online sources ethically..........................................................................6.24
7.1 Copyright and Intellectual Property Rights ..................................................... 6.24
7.2 Ethereal nature of online documents ................................................................ 6.24
7.3 Plagiarism and online learning .......................................................................... 6.25
7.4 Action Tips........................................................................................................... 6.25
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5. Online Tutoring e-Book 6 Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning
8. Executive Summary ..........................................................................................6.26
8.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 6.26
8.2 Culture and ethics ............................................................................................... 6.26
8.3 Self-awareness and online presence................................................................... 6.26
8.4 Language.............................................................................................................. 6.26
8.5 Silences and humour........................................................................................... 6.26
8.6 Tutor and learner roles ...................................................................................... 6.26
8.7 Using online sources ethically ............................................................................ 6.27
8.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 6.27
Appendix 6.A References and Sources..............................................................6.28
6.A.1 Conference sources cited for this topic ......................................................... 6.28
OTiS Case Studies ...................................................................................................................... 6.28
OTiS Discussions ....................................................................................................................... 6.30
3.A.2 External references ......................................................................................... 6.30
6.A.3 Authors’ details ............................................................................................... 6.32
Appendix B: Cultural communication styles associated with learning cultures by
major linguistic grouping ........................................................................................6.35
Appendix C: Concept diagram of Interactive Learning .........................................6.37
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6. Online Tutoring e-Book 6 Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning
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7. 6 Culture and Ethics:
Facilitating Online Learning
Michel Labour, Charles Juwah, Nancy White and Sarah Tolley
1. Introduction
One of the key attributes of online learning is the ability to reach people around the block
and around the globe. This presents an unprecedented opportunity for tapping into the
richness and diversity of learners, as well as a challenge to overcome some of the barriers
we face working across and between languages and cultures. This potential is recognised
in many of the case studies, for example:
“The potential of the Internet for delivering cost-effective and more
accessible professional training is widely accepted… We wanted to
exploit this potential to reach as many urban managers as possible in the
Asia-Pacific region. Our aim is to deliver current, innovative and best
practice oriented training material in a cost-effective and accessible
manner. Delivering this workshop style Continuous Professional
Development (CPD) online was essential to create a viable model of mass
CPD by providing an alternative to sending professionals to regional
United Nations and similar sponsored workshops.” (Webster)
Learning and tutoring are very complex phenomena, much like “culture and ethics” that
cannot easily be reduced to simple factors. Given this, the aim of our reflections is to
suggest ways in which fellow tutors could anticipate and enhance the possible impact of
culture and ethics in online communication and, consequently, in online learning.
As Warschaeur (1998) points out, one of the major changes in distance learning and
tutoring is the renewed interest in culture in regards to online learning. It seems that many
teachers are unsure as to how best to use “culture” in the learning and tutoring process.
This is linked, in part, to Warschaeur’s observation that there is a move from learner
interaction with the machine to interaction with a variety of other people via the machine
(arising from current socio-cognitive approaches to computer-assisted learning).
Some of the key questions revolve around how culture is, or is not, experienced online:
• Is it easier to work across cultures free from visual cues, which tap into our
prejudices?
• Is it harder without visual cues so that we miss sensitive cultural cues?
• Just how do we maximise the diversity and respect for cultures while tutoring online?
The contributions for the content are drawn mainly from e-workshop sources and
contributions including case studies, online discussions and chats. References given
without dates are references to case study conference contributions details for which are
given in Appendix A. This group used the online discussion space to collaborate, merge
and synthesise a range of contributions into a cohesive presentation. They have chosen not
to (and it is almost impossible to) attribute individual contributions. A full list of
participants in the online discussion is listed in Appendix A.
The Online Tutoring Skills Project is funded by the Scottish Higher Education Funding Council
Online Tutoring Skills e-Workshop, 8–12 May 2000, T6-03
©2001 Heriot-Watt University, The Robert Gordon University, Michel Labour, Charles Juwah, Nancy White and Sarah Tolley
8. Online Tutoring e-Book 6 Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning
2. Culture and Ethics
2.1 What is culture?
In this context, the concept of culture is associated with a coherent system of identifying
attitudes, values, and frames of activities linked to a given pattern of behaviour (Sapir
1921 and 1967). What defines a culture is not the presence or absence of a certain cultural
trait, but rather the way in which it pursues its objectives in a given direction. One way of
doing this is to provide a system of accepted rules and standards of behaviour, in other
words a ‘code of ethical values’.
2.2 What are ethics?
Habermas (1990, pp 65, 85, 86–94, 158–159), in his treatise on moral consciousness and
communicative action, defines discourse ethics as reasoned agreement (or valid norms)
reached by individuals in a group or community through dialogue or communicative
action. These norms, agreed by all participants in the group for the common interest of all,
are motivated by the values of respect, truth, sincerity, fairness, equity of participation in
the discussion and accountability. For the norms to be valid within a group, community or
culture, they must be regulated through the protection of practice that enhances mutual
understanding of the norms from other cultures.
“The problem we perceived was that people often do not know how to
engage in supportive communication. Our competitive culture [UK]
teaches adversarial communication – ie domination and control. An
unhelpful result is a tendency for people to dogmatise one another rather
than help one another to learn. A positively damaging result is a tendency
for people to fight for domination – which, in an online environment, can
result in flaming or withdrawal …” (Zimmer and Alexander)
In online communities as in any other, the ethical issues of respect for one another
(regardless of gender, race, religion, class etc) such as truth, sincerity, fairness, equity of
participation in discussion, decision-making and accountability are paramount for the
effective operation and survival of the group as an entity. Zimmer and Alexander, and
Kennedy and Duffy, each offer a technique to support such an ethical online community.
2.3 How is culture expressed online?
The predominant online learning context considered during the OTiS e-Workshop was text
based communication which appears to be a critical component of retaining one’s cultural
identity. However images are also important to cultural identity.
2.3.1 Text based communication
Online tutors may observe a great deal of cultural form from an ‘international’ student by
the style and content of, for example, an email text. This form may be signalled by the:
• choice of words,
• formality of informality of writing,
• amount of self-disclosure,
• amount of willingness to take risks by sharing ideas or comments.
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9. Online Tutoring e-Book 6 Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning
What is not always immediately accessible to the reader are the cultural meanings that the
participant wishes to convey in the message via the choice of vocabulary, syntax or
metaphor, etc.
There are some aspects that are invisible even in a face-to-face situation that can have
implications for online facilitation, for example, religion and sexual orientation. As online
tutors we should reflect on these questions:
• Do we assume when someone has an accent that they are ‘foreign’ or that they
lack a grasp of our language?
• How does that change our perception of the words sent by a student?
• How does the experience change online?
Robert Lado (1986, p54) proposes a threefold analysis in identifying units of culturally
patterned behaviour:
• First, there is the cultural ‘form’ of behaviour, identified functionally
by members of that culture (eg ‘learning’ happens when you can
memorise what the teacher has said).
• Then, there are culturally determined levels of ‘meaning’ attributed to
a given form of behaviour. Meaning can have a primary level (eg
‘learning’ to pass an examination) accompanied by secondary levels
of meaning (eg ‘learning’ to make the teacher happy, for social
acceptability, etc).
• Finally, all meaningful behaviours are socially distributed in a
particular way. Patterned ‘distribution’ (or frequency) of this sort,
involves a complex combination of factors like time cycles, space
locations and relationships to other units, etc (eg ‘learning’ happens in
a school building, with a teacher between 8.30 a.m. and 4.30 p.m.,
from Monday to Saturday morning, with the exception of
Wednesdays).
The totality of this culturally patterned behaviour is underpinned by cultural literacy
(Lado). Finkelstein examines this concept in his case study:
“In the context of cultural studies, one very positive point about utilising
electronic tutorials and the Web was the opportunity it gave students to be
exposed to, reflect upon and comment on the growing influence of and
changes wrought by computers and cyberspace culture on society today.
Comparing cultural identities and institutions as fixed in their present
physical and mental surroundings, with such identities as reconstituted in
cyberspace, as we did, for example, with our first assignment comparing
real and virtual museums, provoked strong and considered responses from
students. It was a valuable way of introducing and discussing cultural
theories utilising examples drawn from immediate contexts and virtual
spaces.” (Finkelstein)
The cultural frequency/distribution of what was said might not be obvious for the reader of
the text, eg praising people’s performance may be acceptable and common in the USA but
is rarer in a country like France. These misunderstandings may be compounded by delays
caused by asynchronous learning due to different time zones between participants.
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10. Online Tutoring e-Book 6 Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning
2.3.2 Images
Images can produce a strong reaction in students and can convey, ideas, associations and
emotions more quickly than text. Webster, for example, describes the use of a ‘building
metaphor’ in a multi-cultural context:
“The Virtual Policy Studio (VPS) was designed around a building
metaphor. We customised WebBoard to create a virtual policy studio,
which functions something like a virtual clubhouse for urban managers in
the region. A training corridor provides access to a tutor’s office, personal
study rooms, a lounge, and a group exercise room. The personal study
rooms have full conferencing and chat facilities and access to a Resource
Room, which in any particular workshop contains structured course
material.” (Webster)
What are the implications of our choice and use of visual metaphors and images? What
underlying assumptions and values influence our choice and what impact do these images
have in other cultures?
For example: commonly used software makes extensive use of icons. Can we assume that
these are universally recognised throughout the world? An example is the navigation bar
of most Internet browsers that show a traditional concept of a ‘European home’ designed
for the nuclear family. Is this recognised as a symbol for ‘home’? How does this affect
other cultures? Institutions need to make such icons multicultural, a difficult but essential
task.
This is an issue online tutors will need to address as the use of multiple media, such as
pictures, graphics, simulations, video and audio, becomes more common and widespread.
2.4 The value of diversity
Diversity is difference and there is richness in diversity, which is underpinned by variety.
Variety is present in the form of gender, race, ethnicity, culture, creed, status, knowledge,
skills level and life experiences. Diversity enriches the learning environment and the
quality of learning and enhances learners’ intercultural experience.
In online learning, diversity in itself forms a rich and valuable learning resource, which
both tutors and students can use:
• to help them better understand aspects of other participants’ culture,
• to help them understand how these cultural differences can affect learning and
interaction online.
How can tutors minimise misunderstandings and use cultural variations as springboards to
enhance online learning?
Clearly, there is no one ‘right’ method. The online tutor needs to be flexible to the range of
possibilities and make an appropriate selection from a variety of approaches depending on
the context. This requires cultural literacy or knowledge about the world that enables us to
effectively communicate, interact and socialise with others. The lack of accurate cultural
information about our own or others’ ethnic groups may result in us being misinformed
about other cultures and cause cultural shock, hurt or conflict.
We attempt to address some of these questions, issues and concerns in the remainder of
this chapter by providing guidelines to facilitate online tutoring which focus on self-
awareness, and transparent and open facilitation.
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11. Online Tutoring e-Book 6 Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning
3. Self-awareness and online presence
When considering cultural issues it is important for us to consider our own starting point.
We need to raise our self-awareness by reflecting on how we assess ourselves and how we
communicate with, and present ourselves to, others:
• by what we say,
• by how we say it (ie in a formal/informal way).
This in itself is a cultural exercise. For example, in presenting oneself to establish an
identity and place online, we can describe visible signs of recognition: race, gender, social
status, age, place of residence, and personal interests and tastes. What and how much
information is exchanged can have a major impact on the online learning community.
Online communication can be very liberating and is able to provide opportunities and
remove or reduce barriers. As Labour describes:
“… [it] allows learners to practice the target language with native
speakers living in their own country. This represents an important
complementary facet to learning English in a country like France where
English is not a dominant language. Online learning also allows contact
between people from different social backgrounds and profiles who would
not always dialogue in a face-to-face (educational) context. This type of
learning tends to encourage learners to be autonomous and tolerant, if
nothing else, in order to maintain contact with their email partners.”
(Labour)
However some problems can arise in transnational conferencing where issues of status and
hierarchy can influence the community, as Tolley reports:
“Various problems arise that are specific to transnational conferencing.
The first is formality. Given the wide range of forms of address that are
considered necessary in a lot of European countries it is important observe
the formalities at the start of a conference like this. My solution is to
invite participants to introduce themselves formally and then to negotiate
a more informal mode of address. This approach was particularly
successful with a Sicilian professor, who was delighted at being addressed
by his first name, something that simply could not happen in his
university.” (Tolley)
Gwynne and Chester adopted an approach whereby their students, wholly online, interact
via aliases to self-reflexively explore the issues of identity and community in a
qualitatively different teaching/learning environment while addressing issues of gender
and cultural equity.
“Students were required to have no face-to-face contact with each other
during the semester.
“To further stimulate life online and encourage a sense of pseudonymity,
all students selected an alias in the first week and they were only known to
the others in their group by their aliases.
“We hoped the use of pseudonyms would create a context of ‘managed
ambiguity’ (Jaffe, Lee, Huang, and Oshagan, 1995), permitting
relationship, while offering an opportunity to actively conceal or reveal
elements of real life identity. This process that Walther (1996) describes
as self-selection, allows traits such as race, gender, and age to be
“revealed through performance rather than appearance”. (p 20)
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12. Online Tutoring e-Book 6 Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning
“We only knew the students by their aliases. We did not know their real
names, their gender, their age or whether they were part time or full time
students.” (Gywnne and Chester)
What is of particular importance is linking information we have available to questions
such as:
• How does this influence me as an online facilitator?
• What assumptions and biases am I likely to be prone to?
• Where does my intuition and experience serve me?
• Where am I stepping into unknown/known territory?
• How might my disclosure of any/all of this affect others in the group?
This can have important implications for online tutors. For example, many case studies
describe introductory exercises designed to promote interaction and generate a sense of
community amongst the learners. The majority of these exercises involve some form of
self-introduction as part of the exercise, as these examples illustrate:
“I start each class with a ‘two truths and one lie’ exercise to establish a
culture of interaction and collaboration, (tell two ‘truths’ and one ‘lie’
about yourself and ask classmates to vote on which is the lie).” (Kulp)
“In the first instance (usually week one), the main aim is to encourage
participation and discussion. This is achieved by a variety of methods,
including mimicking conversational introductions and dialogue, and
making controversial statements on the topic, for students to respond to.”
(Street)
“… have found that asking the students to provide a short introduction and
a description of their job role usually reveals areas they have in common
and breaks the ice. A private conference, open only to students, also helps
them to establish a sense of community, albeit virtual.” (Creanor)
“We use chat to create a sense of immediacy and connection. The first
chat comes at the end of the first week and is about getting to know each
other, starting sometimes with things as simple as the weather (as our
students come from many parts of the world and the US, and that is
always kind of funny). We use a ‘clock’ protocol that we introduce
previously with the telephone conference call to ensure everyone has a
chance to ‘speak’ and have a sense of the group in the absence of physical
presence. Theoretically all students had already introduced themselves in
the asynchronous conference environment and filled in their profiles, so
these introductions are more casual and play off of what they have learned
about each other during the week. Then each person comments on their
experiences of the first week. This ‘round’ is very affirming as folks are a
little more open, less formal in chat and it is OK to say ‘I feel this’ or ‘I
feel that’. People talk about how this experience helps them feel reassured
and more connected to the group.” (White and Moussou)
These examples raise issues such as the acceptability of lying (Kulp), reproducing face-to-
face scenarios (Street) and judging the borderline between ‘controversial’ and offensive
(Street). Most communities become established because the participants have something in
common. As online tutors we have to identify appropriate areas to begin this bonding
process, eg participants presenting and discussing information about each other (Creanor
and White and Moussou) or forming impressions through working together towards a
common end (Gwynne and Chester).
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A key benefit that is often claimed for online communities is that they help to reduce
prejudice, preconceptions and misconceptions that can arise through normal face-to-face
situations. We need to consider carefully how much of the face-to-face signals and cues
we reproduce online and how much information we share, eg biographies, photographs,
hobbies, interests, and how we replace the perceived gap in our knowledge of other group
members.
“Gender issues became apparent in the tutor conferences at an early stage,
when it was assumed (by a male tutor) that the person providing technical
help, who had a non gender specific name, was male. His defence that
‘people should state their gender where it isn’t obvious’ led to the only
outbreak of flaming within the tutor conference. Other researchers have
also noted this assumption being made by male students.” (Morrison)
3.1 Action Tips
Online tutors may wish to work with a group of peers to explore their cultural identity and
assumptions (see Finkelstein, Gwynne and Chester, Labour), for example:
• How are they expressed offline?
• How are they expressed online?
• Where are there gaps in cultural ‘competence’ and opportunities for further
learning?
The use of private or public discussion rooms (eg Webster, Creanor) or ‘journal spaces’
can be a useful tool for both student and tutor self-assessment and reflection. (Cowan,
Ehmann, Hird, Mohamad, and White and Moussou offer a range of perspectives on the use
of journals). For a contrasting perspective on private spaces see Clarke, while Murray
suggests a negotiated agreement on what will be made public and what will kept private.
Also check out Canney Davidson and Ward’s ‘cultural value checklist’ available at
http://www.mcgraw-hill.co.uk/tpr/international_teams/it_interventions.html, taken from
their book Leading International Teams (1999).
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4. Language
Language is an important element of cultural identity. It enables us to communicate ideas,
beliefs, values and feelings. The choice of language will have an impact on
communication and consequently on learning.
The table in Figure 1 (appendix B) summarises the typology of online learning
communities by some of the major spoken languages.
4.1 Which language to use?
Communication and learning are more effective where the participants are relatively
competent and fluent in the language being used. On the other hand, the Internet offers the
potential for international collaboration and the provision of courses, which attract
participants from around the world who bring different languages and cultures. In such a
case, it is argued, a common language is needed to allow participants to communicate,
learn and collaborate together successfully (as in Higgison).
4.1.1 English as the common language
English, it is argued, is the language of commerce and the Internet. Many providers of
internationally available online learning opportunities, such as the UK Open University
(see Macdonald, Morrison, Salmon and Tolley), use English as the common language.
This rationale was also the basis of using English in the multinational courses described in
Higgison, Kennedy and Duffy, McFarlane, McKenzie, Scheuerman et al, Webster and
White and Moussou.
A caveat: English was the language used during the OTiS e-Workshop, because the
organisers are based in the UK. The call to participate in the e-workshop was issued only
in English and the participants were self-selecting in that they chose to submit a case study
and participate in the e-workshop. All the case studies cited above describe courses which
are provided by institutions and organisations based in countries where English (whatever
version) is the ‘native’ language.
We should also question the view that English is a common language amongst countries
like the USA, the UK, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Although the majority of the
e-workshop participants spoke English as their first language there were many
misunderstandings and different interpretations of the meanings of key terms such as
‘tutor’, ‘assessment’ and ‘evaluation’ as an excerpt from the online discussion about one
of the case studies (Creanor) demonstrates.
“Date: 5-May-00 18:00
Author: Rick
Subject: So much in common / Need for translation
... One other thing that struck me was that I wished I'd had a Scottish-Academic to American-
Corporate dictionary available as I read your case. ICT? FE? I'm clueless. Tutor? Is that
anything like an instructor? Perhaps Carol can set up a database or discussion thread
somewhere that we can visit when we encounter unfamiliar jargon. By the way, this is an issue
in my own classes, whose students come from around the world. …
Date: 7-May-00 22:06
Author: Anne
Subject: language/acronyms
I, too, struggled with some of the acronyms. I think this brings up an interesting issue
surrounding OTL--it really forces us all to think about language and to be aware of
word usage beyond our own cultures. In my very first international online experience
[Internet] years ago, the researcher hosting a Delphi study model lost significant time
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in his study because participants across 4 English-speaking countries were all using
different terminology related to one profession. [The problem was resolved by
establishment of common lexicon.] "Speaking" online in language that is understood
across cultures is yet one more skill that both teachers and students need when they
shift to OTL.
Date: 8-May-00 14:08
Author: michel
Subject: database for acronyms
Hi Anne - I completely agree with you about professional and cultural
acronyms, and jargon. Sadly I am guilty of it as anyone else, I suppose it is a
type of shorthand and sign of recognition of being part of a community.
I do think a database is necessary, for example, distinctions like teacher
(school/pupil context?), tutor (small group discussions?), instructor (this
particularly reminds me of the army? and Skinner and his programmed lock-
step learning), trainer (business context?) intercultural would not always get
consensus even within the same national culture as it may cover
sociolinguistic assumptions about power and control in the learning process.
PS what is OTL ?
Michel
Date: 8-May-00 14:49
Author: Gilly
Subject: UK to US contexts
This conversation strikes a chord with me too- I'm currently
working to "translate" the online tutor training (described in case
study 32) to the US context- the UK OU has a sister university just
beginning - and I'm taking some responsibility for the training and
development of the Associate Faculty (working as online tutors)
their first complaint was - process OK - but excuse me what are you
SAYING!!! gILLY
Date: 9-May-00 01:50
Author: Anne
Subject: "otl" defined
OTL stands for online teaching & learning. I apologize for
confusing this conference with another project in which OTL is part
of the project lingo. --Anne
Date: 8-May-00 16:14
Author: Linda
Subject: So much in common / Need for translation
Hi Rick,
Apologies for the acronyms - I'm afraid I have to plead guilty to that. Normally I do
try to spell them out (ICT-information and communication technologies, FE = Further
Education) but as space was limited I succumbed to temptation!
The participants in this discussion were from the USA, UK and France. Their suggestion
of a shared database or lexicon of common terms has arisen in other contexts.
4.1.2 Accommodating language differences
In forcing learners to limit themselves to one language (eg English), some participants
may feel at a disadvantage at being unable to express themselves fully. This language
barrier may pose considerable challenges and a block to learning for some non-native
speakers of English. Less fluent speakers of a language may take a longer time in
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composing or drafting their messages or responses to discussions and activities. This
becomes crucial in synchronous conferences in which immediacy is paramount.
Some argue that the asynchronous nature of many online learning opportunities
compensates for this disadvantage by allowing time for reflection and to write
contributions, but does not take into account other factors. For example, English language
speakers from different countries/cultures, and people with different writing skill sets will
have different levels of willingness to take risks. This may lead to a greater reticence to
contribute (eg Kennedy and Duffy) or may lead to more formality than the learner might
typically use (eg Tolley). Cameo 1 clearly demonstrates the feelings of an online learner
who found it difficult fully participating in a learning situation as a result of language
barrier.
Cameo 1
Language Barriers LO19386
Maldonado
Fri, 2 Oct 1998 11:32:16 -0700
http://www.learning-org.com/98.10/0008.html - Learning organisation dialog on Learning
Organisations – consulted 23 July 2000)
Replying to LO19376 - Diego … wrote:
I declare myself a Lurker, for not having the easiness of write my mail in English Language.
English is not my mother tongue and I speak it seldom. Thus it is so difficult for me write my
thoughts in this language. I think that many people are in my particular situation, for such
reason, I need one suggest about How I find some effective technological help that allow me to
dialogue in the cyberspace with so distinguished participants.
Some case studies describe online courses developed and delivered in a language other
than English (for example Blom, Doufexopoulou, Eger and Vacek, Haragus, Lustigova
and Zelenda, Mikulecka and Poulova, Mohamad, Nurmela, Spoustova, and Tammelin).
However, participants on these courses tend to be restricted to the country of origin.
4.1.3 Native and non-native speakers
A major issue regarding language usage is where the learning community consists of both
native and non-native speakers. A key problem is finding the right level of communication
with which all learners are comfortable. The use of jargon or colloquialisms may be a
source of misunderstanding and confusion for some non-native speakers. Therefore, it is
very important for tutors to use ‘plain language’ and have excellent “communication skills
(clear, brief, entertaining)” (Kulp). Online tutors need to show patience in supporting these
learners.
One way of reducing this type of anxiety and apprehension is to encourage learners to
comment on the use of the chosen language and discuss which other language(s) they
would have been the most comfortable with (for example see Janes).
The issue of language usage could be quite emotive for some learners and may raise for
example such questions as:
• How participants feel about communicating online. If they feel the medium
corresponds to their idea of furthering intercultural understanding. For example, there
may be difficulties in participating because the language of discourse is not always
elegant or well thought out as described in Cameo 2.
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Cameo 2
Language Barriers LO19390
Replying to LO19386
http://www.learning-org.com/98.09/0328.html - Learning organisation dialog on Learning
Organisations – consulted 23 July 2000)
Several of you have expressed low confidence in writing to such an august group. That
problem is not limited to difference in native language. I watched for months fearful of
speaking out because my language is shop not academia. Reading the smooth sentence
structure than many use is also intimidating. The idea of communicating with written words
and no action is very intimidating as well. Besides I can't type so most ideas are lost before
they hit the screen. My language has always been do it. Now I work with ideas and must use
mostly words. Strange feeling. You have great insights, ideas and questions. Keep it up.
Gene
Eugene …
Cameo 3 shows how other learners empathise and can support their peers in learning.
Cameo 3
Language Barriers LO19389
W.M. …
Sat, 3 Oct 1998 02:45:05 +0200
replying to Language Barriers LO19376
Buenos Dias Diego!(I probably wrote it wrong)
http://www.learning-org.com/98.10/0011.html- Learning organisation dialog on Learning
Organisations – consulted 23 July 2000)
As a Dutchman raised in two different cultures I understand your problem. I remember that
writing my first postings to this list took me houres!! I was worried about they way I
expressed myself and felt often foolish. So I changed sentences again and again before I
daired to hit the "send now" button. But my wish to express and share my thoughts, idea's
comments and questions was always bigger than my fear to make a fool out of myself. I have
never regret it. In the almost three years I am member of this list I have NEVER had any
complains about my writing skills nor the quality of my contributions. (Of course I don't
know how many were stopped by our dear moderator Rick...... :-) ). If something wasn't clear,
people asked me for clearafication. It helped me sort out my own mind but theirs as well.
THEY also re-concidered their use of language (remember the 'faith' and 'trust' thread.) I even
dare to state that I improved my english along the road. (Did I boys and girls??) So their is
teaching and learning on both ends; not only on the level of contents, but also at the
processlevel, the relational level and the observing level. What more can we wish? I for me
hope that you (and others) will contribute with whatever is on your learning mind! Or, as my
Indonesian Grandmother used to say: "Barchih barbeh, bu barchichi bu barkabeh" (translated:
If one sheep starts to walk, the others will follow.......):-)
Have a great day!
Winfried …
• Stereotyping, be it open or hidden, can be particularly destructive. For example,
carelessly saying to a learner whose native language is not English that his/her
language is ‘very bad and not up to scratch’ will be very de-motivating.
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4.1.4 Supporting multiple languages
In certain online learning situations it may be appropriate to use, or even promote, the use
of two or more languages – to help enhance meaning and the understanding of knowledge
for the learners. Daele, Janes, Labour and Noakes report examples where courses have
been designed as multi-lingual or have adapted to meet a lack of language skills (Sitharam
and Shimizu).
“The course materials are in English but tutorial support and online
discussions can be in English or Spanish. If a student registers for this
course via UBC [Canada] then all work, reading and discussions are done
in English. If the student registers via ITESM [Mexico] then Masters’
students have the option to discuss online and with their Spanish speaking
instructors in Spanish. … Many of the UBC registered students come to
the course with English as a second language but are aware that the work
is conducted in English. However any group work can be conducted in
any language agreed to by the group. Submitted works must be in English.
Several of our UBC instructors have been taking intensive Spanish
language instruction.” (Janes)
“…the assumption that students were sufficiently fluent in English to
undertake the course, which was mostly designed in English, proved not
to be correct. Later attempts were made to integrate some specific terms in
both languages with the help of a colleague and students, who were also
instrumental in such a development… web education oriented towards
Japanese students opens another area of bilingual education media
development.” (Sitharam and Shimizu)
A conflict can arise where such a need is clearly demonstrated but not met, as for example
in Higgison. This case study reported on how the online participants were led to question
the assumption of an ‘English language only’ approach when they found a need to create a
glossary of specialised terms in their own language which did not previously exist. The
creation of a glossary in the learners’ own language was to enable them make sense of and
to meaningfully engage in learning. This example clearly highlights how online learning
can be used to encourage respect for language-cultural diversity. Higgison describes a
course delivered to participants in eleven Central European countries. Legal restrictions
imposed by the University hosting the online discussions required that these had to be in
English. Groups in some countries set up their own discussion facilities for own language
discussions, but all the course materials and assessments were conducted in English (as in
Janes).
In practical terms, one traditional feature of tutoring models from countries like Britain is
the tendency to promote an ‘English Only’ approach (see Nuffield Report: The Next
Generation 20002 at http://www.nuffield.org/language/news/nws_0023732.html) and in
doing so resist multi-linguilism and language change (Ellis, 1994, p236).
On the one hand, this can be explained by a natural reflex to conserve the reassuringly
familiar (Shorris, 2000, p36). On the other hand, researchers, like Phillipson (1992,
pp145–168), show that this tendency is based on a self-interested (economic) strategy by
claiming to promote international co-operation and peace in using a language like
‘Standard English’. In a detailed study on the subject, Phillipson (1992, p285) exposes the
2
“(In the UK)... we teach a narrowing range of languages, at a time when we should be doing the
opposite ... The government should arrange for a sustained campaign to promote positive attitudes
towards languages, raise awareness of their potential and foster a culture where using more than
one language is seen as an attainable goal for the majority." at
http://www.nuffield.org/language/news/nws_0023732.html (consulted 07.07.2000)
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fallacies underlying the ‘English Only’ approach, including the myth that language
diversity has been a major cause of conflict between people.
The dangers of down playing the respect for language and cultural diversity in favour of
standardised languages is brought home by the work of linguists like Michael Krauss,
specialist of dead and dying languages (Shorris, 2000, pp35–36). Looking at the present
situation, Krauss estimates that as many as 3,000 languages, or half of the words on Earth,
will die in the next century.
In the light of this, if the respect of cultural diversity is to be encouraged, the use of a
widespread language like English should not serve to help kill off other languages and the
cultures associated with them. Its use, as an intercultural 3 mode of communication, should
rather be that of being flexible enough to accommodate other languages and inevitable
language changes to the English language. This is no easy task. New strategies in online
reading and writing may have to be developed.
4.2 Style of communication
Cross-cultural learning groups present a wonderful opportunity to benefit from diverse
views and experiences, often far beyond what learners might find in their local, offline
community. Online groups, like all learning communities4, need ‘ground rules’ to guide
people in how to interact with each other. Zimmer, Harris and Muirhead examine this
topic in more detail in Theme 3 – ‘Building an Online Community’.
4.2.1 Formal or informal communication?
‘Ground rules’ may address how participants wish to identify themselves, the community's
mode of operation and style of communication (formal/informal), and frequency of
participation. They can help reduce learner worries about offending each other by
overstepping unknown boundaries.
The key here is to be explicit about things. One way of doing this is to allow participants
to express their preferred social and cultural formalities in the opening introductions and
presentations. Most online forums adopt an informal style of address in which participants
including the tutor/facilitator are addressed by their first names. However, this may not be
true in all contexts. There could be a cultural or social need for some to remain formal. For
example many Southern Europeans feel reassured with a preamble to open discussions,
and those in the South and East of Europe tend to be keen on their titles. Some may prefer
a period of relationship building while others are accustomed to "getting right to work”
(Tolley).
4.2.2 Status of the written text
Whatever the online conversation style participants prefer, some may have deeply held
feelings concerning the written text. Osterloh (1986, pp78–79) points out that in many
non-Anglo American cultures the written text is seen as something more than an
3
The term intercultural refers to “the symbolic exchange whereby individuals from two (or more)
different cultural communities negotiate shared meanings in an interactive situation” (Ting-Toomey
1999 p16)
4
Definition of a Learning Community: A Learning Community is a learning event with fixed time
limits, that exists for a specific purpose and brings together a group of people as peers to meet
personal learning needs through sharing resources and skills offered by those present. In such a
community, tutors act as facilitators and co-learners”. Source Pedler, M. (1981) Developing the
Learning Community in Boydell, T. and Pedler, M. (eds) Management Self-Development: Concepts
and Practices, UK: Gower.
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individual presentation or personal opinion, which can be challenged. Perception of
differences of opinion in writing may be seen as an attack on the person or the person's
group. This can be explained by the fact that in some cultures, the written text is seen as a
"fixed unit in which everything is important ... (and) worth reading" (ibidum). Such a
reader will not have been encouraged to distinguish between important and unimportant
information. The emphasis will be not so much on the content, but essentially on the style
and status of the author of the text. The higher the status of the author, the more
authoritative the text and the less likely that it may be challenged. This makes the task of
producing written text based on personal opinion particularly challenging for some
learners. These learners will tend to rely more on collective opinion or that based of
someone of higher recognised status than their own. Given that this type of written skill
may not exist to the same extent in the ‘native’ tongue of the learner (Osterloh, 1986,
pp81–82) it is up to the tutor to show the learner:
• how to contradict someone politely,
• how to join conversation,
• how to draw attention to common points of view,
• how to come to a conclusion,
• how to generally depersonalise opinions and arguments (see action tips).
4.3 Action Tips
Developing an online (intercultural) writing style
• Short, simple sentences.
• Active modes of verbs and sentences (see
http://www.plainenglish.co.uk/testing.html).
• Explicitly define vocabulary.
• Regular use of questions and tag questions to draw responses from learners.
Recognising the advantages of language change
There is consensus that we should communicate in a coherent and appropriate way. The
question, however, is how to reconcile linguistic norms with the inevitable process of
change and adaptation of the language. One criterion could be establishing how the online
language is able to go beyond face-to-face and local communication needs.
Questioning language usage
The tutor may encourage learners to question problematic language norms with each other
and with the tutor. Behind language-cultural norms and non-standard language there are
often revealing cultural representations. For example, slang (and humour) “offers an index
to changing perception based not on theories but on immediate experience” (McLuhan,
1964, p viii).
Tips for communicating with non-native speakers of English
• Use uncomplicated language and clear explanations.
• Write clearly and avoid slang and idioms.
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• Summarise what each person has written to assure each that you have understood.
• Clarify and confirm that your explanation has helped the participant understand.
• Check for understanding, avoiding ‘Yes/No’ questions.
• Pause longer when waiting for responses; allow time for the other person to reply.
• Allow non-native speakers to finish their sentences by themselves (many cultures are
extremely comfortable with silence).
• Remember that language fluency does not equal cultural fluency.
• Encourage co-mediation as a positive approach to take advantage of different
mediators’ styles.
Adapted from Myers and Filner (1999) Mediation Across Cultures available online at
http://www.amedpub.com/worklife2k/divconflict.html.
See also Cowan, Kulp, Kennedy and Duffy, and Zimmer and Alexander for techniques to
promote mutually supportive, non-confrontational learning communities.
Language-switching tolerance
The tutor can permit learners to refer occasionally to local languages when no other
alternative is possible. It seems preferable for the learner to refer what he/she knows, albeit
in a language other than English, rather than be systematically excluded due to the absence
of appropriate competence by the reader. The text can later be translated. For example in
Higgison, the participants of the ‘English’ version of the course later went on to translate
the materials into their own languages and acted as tutors for local delivery of the course.
Labour reports a strategy for intercultural communication in an email partnership project
between native French speakers and English speakers. Participants are encouraged to use
different languages, so a French speaker may write part of the email in French and part of
it in English and vice versa; the primary focus is on the content and meaning not the
language. Noakes expanded on language usage in his case study during the discussion:
“… in Hong Kong our Putonghua classes use written Chinese in their
online forums, in the ESL online forums we use English, in the Japanese
classes, written Japanese ... etc. But with multi-lingual groups who are not
on a language course like the students we teach, then they revert to
English. But students here who share the same first language of Cantonese
are used to using instant messengers such as ICQ with a mix of English
and Chinese characters – happily code switching between the two.”
(Noakes-D)
Exemplar lesson plans on interculturality
Originally aimed at language learning, the following online lesson plans are examples of
how to use cultural resources in an educational context. They could be useful in defusing
intercultural misunderstandings. These resources were accessed on 21 Feb 2001.
• ‘Teaching awareness of stereotyping’ available online at
http://www.aitech.ac.jp/~iteslj/Lessons/Kajiura-Stereotyping.html,
• ‘Nationalities and their Stereotypes’ available online at
http://www.aitech.ac.jp/~iteslj/Lessons/Counihan-Stereotypes.html,
• ‘Developing Awareness: An Intercultural Communication Lesson Plan’ available
online at http://www.aitech.ac.jp/~iteslj/Lessons/Kajiura-Intercultural.html,
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• ‘Country Presentations’ available online at
http://www.aitech.ac.jp/~iteslj/Lessons/Swain-Country.html,
• ‘Crossing Cultural and Spatial Boundaries: A Cybercomposition Experience’
http://www.aitech.ac.jp/~iteslj/Articles/Gousseva-CyberComp.html,
• ‘Reflections on interculturality’ available online at
http://www.siu.edu/~ekachai/intercultural.html,
• ‘Reflections on intercultural resources’ available online at
http://www2.soc.hawaii.edu/css/dept/com/resources/intercultural/ICH.html,
• ‘Online (intercultural) reading techniques’. This is linked to silence, space, and
time for reflection. One technique is to ask the reader to read another's post in a
variety of manners to see how many possible tones/intent the writer might have
had. The post can be read as if :
– you do not know the language,
– you understand only half of the words,
– it is the voice of a stern teacher or boss,
– it is the voice of a colleague, etc.
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5. Silences and Humour as online interaction issues
5.1 Silences
In online intercultural communication, silences can occur either in the texts themselves,
where certain topics are avoided, or in the irregular contribution of messages in
asynchronous discussions. Some research into email communication for learning purposes
(Labour) has found that the lack of relatively ‘immediate’ response to students’ emails is a
major de-motivating factor. Depending on the culture, these silences can mean
disapproval, approval, neutrality, an admission of guilt, or a sign of incompetence
(Ting-Toomey, 1999, p216).
Edward Hall (1976) explains a cultural phenomenon like ‘silence’ by splitting human
interaction into low-context (eg Germanic countries) and high-context (eg China, Japan,
Vietnam) cultures.
In low-context situations the emphasis is on personal and explicit verbal messages for
which the writer assumes responsibility for its clarity. Words serve as a form of social
control, while silence tends to be used as a form of tacit consent or a sign of failure (eg
guilt, incompetence).
In high-context cultures meaning is based on an indirect style emphasising the implicit
meaning of words in a given social context (eg the high/low status of the writer). The onus
is on the reader to decode meaning from the socio-linguistic context, and not for the writer
to send an explicit message that can be understood by all and sundry. This ability to read
between the lines includes the understanding of the various registers of silence. In this way
silence is used as a means of social control.
In some Asian contexts silences can be a sign of respect for the expertise of the other, or of
displeasure. While in other cultures, like that of France, silence can be a form of neutral
communication to keep a respectful distance from strangers, unlike many “European
Americans … (who) tend to reserve silence for their most intimate relationship” (Carroll,
1987 in Ting-Toomey, 1999, p111).
We must be careful not to fall into the danger of generalising description of different
cultures which can result in what Ting-Toomey (1999, p163) calls, “mindless stereotypes”,
ie a closed-ended, exaggerated over-generalisation of a group of people based on little or
no external validity. The case studies report on a range of differing experiences regarding
the success or otherwise of participation of non-native English speakers in online
discussions, eg Glasson, Gwynne and Chester, Kennedy and Duffy, and Sitharam and
Shimizu.
Given that individuals are not clones of any one culture, there will always be a range of
diversity in a group. For example, in online learning some students gradually become
aware of a reduction of traditional cultural barriers (Gwynne and Chester). This seems to
be linked to the relative anonymity (in terms of gender, race, intercultural) of the medium,
resulting in behaviour that differs from traditional face-to-face classroom behaviour.
Given this, online tutors cannot assume to fully understand phenomena like silence and
humour. It would be wiser to check and ask. This can be done in the online group
environment, or behind the scenes in individual emails, faxes, or telephone calls.
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5.2 Action Tips (silence)
It is important to allow silences. Silence could mean the learner is:
• too busy,
• not present for the moment, eg holiday, illness, pressure of work,
• following along just fine,
• having difficulties,
• waiting to be called upon,
• uncomfortable responding to something, for example, with which the person
disagrees,
• in a position where the person feels there is nothing appropriate to say,
• waiting for a difficult situation to ‘cool down’ before responding, (eg conflict,
embarrassment),
• taking the time to carefully word what to say,
• unable to access the learning environment,
Asking learners to reply, or to give the reason for their silence, should be done regularly,
but with tact and explaining why the subject is raised (quality control, checking all is well,
etc). Learners are often not aware of the impact of their silence on other participants in the
group or on the tutoring/learning process.
5.3 Humour
Humour is a very difficult area in online intercultural communication. Humour is both
culturally specific and personal.
• Some expressions of humour can be appropriate in one culture and completely
inappropriate in a different culture.
• Some individuals are less comfortable with humour than others.
• Some humour is language specific, especially humour that relies on plays on
words (puns) or slang.
However, humour is also a way in which we can communicate our ‘humanness’ in a
technologically mediated environment, helping bridge the distance and lack of physical
communication cues. Play as a form of interaction can also provide a ‘safe’ place to
experience online learning environment and tools if applied with care and sensitivity
(White and Moussou).
The use of games or play should also be used with a great deal of awareness and context.
Cultural attitudes about being ‘serious’ must be surfaced. That said, a right dose of fun can
facilitate the learning process through improved interaction (Gwynne and Chester). To
achieve this, humour and other recreational activities (if possible linked to the learning
content) need to be first run through a filter, and perhaps also discussed afterwards with
learners to make sure they have not got the wrong end of the stick.
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5.4 Action Tips (humour)
The personal use of humour by a tutor must be made in the context of the tutor's self-
awareness or ‘filters’. Tutors can check their filters with the following tips:
• Does the humour rely on language/slang that may not be understood across the
group (as in face-to-face situations)?
• If the humour is deprecating, is it self-deprecating and free of implications for
others in the group (as in face-to-face situations)?
• Are you using visual cues or setting a context to make sure the readers are clear
you are making a joke or using humour? You can use emoticons (text based
smiley faces, eg ‘Windweaver Guide to Emoticons’ available online at
http://www.windweaver.com/emoticon.htm) or words to clearly tag a message as
an attempt at humour so no one would doubt the intent.
• Is the humour used in appropriate spaces/context? Do not make a joke in the
middle of a serious dialogue. Save it for social spaces, or, rarely, as a tension
breaker. That is a very delicate application and harder to do online than offline.
• Do you have a sense of the group’s interest/capacity to use humour? Start small,
sense the reception. If someone comes back with HEHEE or LOL (laughing out
loud) you will know the comment was read in the spirit intended. If not, then you
might need to check to see if anyone has understood the attempt at humour or has
been offended by it. Ask, do not assume.
• Explore using culturally based humour as a learning experience carefully. This is a
very delicate option. For example, when using role playing to show how to work
with a difficult interchange online, people have less of a filter to discern that
another is ‘play acting’. Even with an explicit notice of role playing, participants
seem to have a hard time keeping an assumed role from the ‘real’ role assigned to
the experience of another person.
• Use humour with intent. If working on developing a sense of warmth in a group,
and working on facilitating relationship building, a self-deprecating warning about
one's humour is in line. If behaving more formally, use humour with a much
lighter hand.
• Humour Gone Wrong: recognise and admit mistakes.
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6. Tutor and Learner roles
“Values underlying the production and transmission of knowledge are
very culturally dependent. These can manifest themselves in teaching and
learning systems and hence in the relationship between student and
‘teacher’. When these values and relationships ‘translate’ to the online
environment, they may become rapidly quite apparent.” (Gilly Salmon
during an OTiS online chat on Cultural and Ethical issues).
6.1 Brief pedagogy of online learning
Constructivism is the main pedagogy used in online learning. This approach is used in the
form of discussions, constructivist activity and conferencing to enable the learner to build
an understanding and the meaning of the issues and to construct new knowledge on the
basis of information (O’Reilly and Morgan, 1999). This interactive mode of learning
shown in Figure 2: ‘Concept diagram of Interactive Learning’ (appendix C), is underpined
by:
• the learner’s active role and participation in the creation of knowledge –
significance of experience (individual and social) in the knowledge creation
process,
• the variation in the degree of validity and accurate representation,
• the recognition that construction of knowledge is influenced by biological factors,
language and socio-cultural interactions.
In this mode of learning, the tutor’s role is that of being a guide, motivator or facilitator,
and in some cases, a ‘co-learner’ (Brooks and Brooks, 1993).
Salter provides a detailed definition of constructivism and, along with Clarke and Salmon,
documents examples of constructivism in action.
6.2 Tutor-student relationship
For a majority of cultures, particularly non-English speaking cultures, tutoring is seen as
teacher-led, formal activity, with academic achievement being highly valued socially.
Therefore, a lot of emphasis is placed on the formal and scheduled acquisition of skills and
on the assessment of learning. In these cultures, for example African and Asian, the tutor
is well respected and the tutor-student relationship is formal. The tutor is formally
addressed and very rarely do tutors get addressed by their first names, although this is
changing. Kennedy and Duffy, Sitharam and Shimizu, and Gwynne and Chester report on
the potential of online learning to change the tutor-student relationship.
This view of tutoring contrasts to the Western English-speaking tutoring system that lays
great store in a learner-centred approach to encourage autonomous learning (self-
regulation, self-mediation, self-awareness, etc). Emphasis is placed on skills development
and a flexible approach is adopted for the assessment of learning. Tutor-student
relationships tend to be informal.
Kennedy and Duffy report on the styles of interaction exhibited by students from a
Western English speaking culture (UK) and an Asian non-English speaking culture (Hong-
Kong).
From a modal perspective of online delivery, the shift is to learning communities with less
emphasis on the tutor as ‘sage on the stage’ and more on the guiding and facilitative
functions. Part of this is cultural, and part of it is how the medium is best being used.
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27. Online Tutoring e-Book 6 Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning
Online communication lends itself to dialogue and negotiation as it allows both the learner
and the tutor to test understanding, which might be evidenced offline in the form of body
language or signs of attention. Online, the tutor does not know what a student does or does
not understand unless he/she asks!
Cornelius and Higgison provide a more detailed consideration of these issues in Theme 2:
‘The Tutor’s Role and Effective Strategies for Online Tutoring’.
6.3 Diversity of learners
“It is not our purpose to become each other; it is to recognise each other,
to learn to see the other and honour him for what he is.” (Hermann Hesse,
German author and poet, and recipient of the 1946 Nobel Prize for
literature.)
The Internet is a ‘melting pot’ in which people of different races, creed, gender status and
abilities meet to share experience and skills with each other, and to learn from each other.
It is one of the challenges of a learning community to establish how these differences and
similarities can be used to help achieve the learning needs of the group. For example,
Daele reported that online students had the same concerns and questions despite coming
from various institutions and countries.
As Ting-Toomey (1999, p22) points out, most intercultural miscommunication is caused
by “well-meaning” clashes, where each person behaves according to his/her own cultural
norms, rather than by deliberate unpleasantness. To help prevent such miscommunication,
participants of intercultural communities may have to be encouraged to better understand
the implications of working with people from diverse backgrounds. This understanding
involves recognising that there exist other human qualities outside the group to which a
person belongs, and which can constitute part of the online identity of the person.
With the increased access to the Internet, people who traditionally have little voice in the
decision making process of society (disabled people, women, children, little-taught-
language populations) can be encouraged to participate more in online learning and
decision making through online interaction. This can greatly be enhanced by having
appropriate multicultural approaches and content online so to increase the appeal of web
based resources. For example, online facilities that cater for the needs of the visually and
hearing impaired can be found online at:
• ‘Web Accessibility Initiative’ at http://www.w3c.org/wai (last updated 7 Jan
2001).
• ‘BrailleNet’ at http://www.braillenet.jussieu.fr (in French, last updated Feb 2001).
• ‘Welcome to 10 Downing Street’ at http://www.number-10.gov.uk, which offers a
text only version of the site, capable of being read by ‘text to speech’ software.
• ‘Disability information systems in Higher Education’ at
http://www.disinhe.ac.uk/.
To ensure that diversity is appropriately catered for in online learning situations, it is of
paramount importance that the learning environment and resources:
• are accessible to all including learners with disability (eg
http://www.disabilityhistory.org/about.html),
• provide intercultural interaction and cross cultural communication,
• promote a transformational and inclusive learning – through content which allows
for views, multi-perspectives, infusion of experience and active learning
experience (Gorski, 1999).
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28. Online Tutoring e-Book 6 Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning
Claudia L’Amoreaux summed up the benefits of a culturally enriched online learning as
experienced by young learners as “they had gained uncanny wisdom about encountering
obstacles: language and time zone barriers, expectations and disappointment,
technological hurdles, conflict management and resolution”
(http://www.creatinglearningcommunities.org/book/internet/lamoreaux1.htm).
To avoid diversity issues causing a block to learning in an online environment, online
tutors/facilitators need to address a number of issues.
• Access
In designing the curriculum, online tutors/facilitators should give due
consideration in ensuring access to people who are disabled. For example,
the learning environment may be provided with audio facilities, for the
blind and the visually impaired. Avoid frames or provide a text only
version of web sites.
• Use of colours
Tutors should where possible avoid the use of red colour as people who
are colour blind have difficulty reading writings in red ink.
• Spell check
Tutors should ensure that spell check facilities are available for use by
those who are dyslexic.
• Content
Tutors/facilitators of learning should include in the content of the learning
materials, appropriate items that reflect the diversity of the learning
community.
• Be culturally aware and sensitive to issues of disability, gender, race, language,
religion etc.
• Avoid stereotyping.
• Help the group set ground rules for interacting with members of the group.
• Avoid assumptions, eg attributing gender to a name say Hyacinth, Michel, Grace.
• Always endeavour to ask for clarification on any points made by a learner that
she/he does not understand.
• Do not be judgemental or show bias on any personal beliefs by ignoring a learner.
• Avoid the use of humour that can cause offence to any group on the grounds of
disability, gender, race, sexuality, religion etc.
• Sensitively support learners who are finding language a barrier to their learning,
particularly non-native speakers of English (Myers and Filner, 1999 –
www.amedpub.com/worklife2k/divconflict.html).
6.4 Action Tips
Transparent facilitation
Due to different cultural models of tutoring, it is advisable that tutors are explicit and
transparent about their tutoring techniques (eg White and Moussou). However challenging
it may be, learners and tutors may need help in being open, willing to take risks and not to
always be in ‘authority’, in order that they fully participate in the online community. In
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29. Online Tutoring e-Book 6 Culture and Ethics: Facilitating Online Learning
particular, for participants who express difficulty in communicating in the language of
reference, the role of the tutor would be to encourage them by:
• making rules, norms, expectations, learning content and skills explicit and
explaining the reason for doing something,
• checking that they have really understood what is expected of them,
• focusing on learners’ strengths rather than weaknesses (asset-based approach),
• drawing on learners’ prior knowledge and experiences,
• promoting multiple perspectives and representations of content and ways of doing
things,
• identifying and suggesting ways of resolving online misunderstandings, eg
confusion between cultures by putting the learner in the shoes of the other person
(see Lado above),
• helping learners negotiate meaning, give corrective feedback and self-repair, and
generally monitor their own work, for example by referencing and examining
archived materials,
• reminding them that errors and mistakes are the natural products of the creative
learning process, and that not all errors and mistakes are of the same importance,
• emphasising the completion of the task at hand, and stressing the active role that
learners can play in the knowledge creation process (constructivist approach to
learning),
• highlighting online interactive skills (eg greetings, gender relations, tactful
criticisms, as well as ‘input modification’ strategies like repetitions, confirmations,
reformulations, comprehension checks, recasts, confirmation checks and
clarification requests etc),
• getting them to participate in formative assessment (to inform future learning) and
to use summative assessment to measure significant change or learning achieved
by learners and as a motivator to the learning process,
• exploring ways of having a little fun online, eg exchanging ‘national’ jokes and
puns,
• suggesting where they could get appropriate help, including online organisations
that welcome and guide international students.
By adopting the tips listed above tutors have the opportunity to really take advantage of
the differences and richness arising form a diversity of cultures in facilitating online
learning. The advantages of these valuable cultural differences might be missed if the
‘sage on the stage’ tutoring mode were adopted.
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