This book masters the essentials of grammar, punctuation, and spelling and writes with greater confidence.
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2. Improve your Written English
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4. Improve your Written English Master the essentials of grammar, punctuation and spelling and write with greater confidence MARION FIELD
6. Contents List of illustrations ix Preface xi PART ONE: THE BASICS 1 Discovering Grammar 3 Identifying nouns 3 Using capital letters 5 Replacing nouns with pronouns 7 Knowing the articles 10 Understanding verbs 10 Revising the points 17 Practising what you’ve learnt 17 2 Expanding your Knowledge 19 Making words ‘agree’ 19 Introducing clauses 21 Handling phrases 25 Using adjectives to colour your writing 25 Employing adverbs 27 Using prepositions 28 Revising the points 29 Practising what you’ve learnt 30 3 Polishing up your Punctuation 32 Knowing when to stop 32 Using commas correctly 33 Making use of the semi-colon, the colon and the dash 37 v
7. vi / I M P R O V E Y O U R W R I T T E N E N G L I S H Remembering the question mark and the exclamation mark 39 Revising the points 40 Practising what you’ve learnt 41 4 Paragraphing your Work 43 Structuring a paragraph 43 Setting out direct speech 46 Changing to indirect speech 49 Writing a play 50 Revising the points 50 Practising what you’ve learnt 51 5 Checking your Spelling 53 Establishing the ground rules 53 Avoiding common mistakes 57 Using the dictionary 63 Making use of the thesaurus 65 Revising the points 66 Practising what you’ve learnt 66 6 Looking at Apostrophes and Abbreviations 68 Showing possession 68 Abbreviating words 70 Handling contractions 72 Using initial letters 73 Looking at acronyms 73 Revising the points 74 Practising what you’ve learnt 74 7 Improving your Style 76 Recognising common mistakes 76 Avoiding unnecessary repetition 83 Making comparisons 84 Eliminating jargon 86 Stimulating your imagination 87 Checking your work 92 Using the checklist 95 Practising what you’ve learnt 95
8. C O N T E N T S / vii PART TWO: ENGLISH IN ACTION 8 Writing an Essay and a Short Story 99 Researching your essay 99 Structuring your essay 103 Writing the essay 104 Plotting the short story 105 Editing your work 106 Practising what you’ve learnt 108 9 Summarising and Reporting 109 Writing a summary 109 Compiling a report 111 Checking your summary 115 Checking your report 115 Practising what you’ve learnt 115 10 Filling in Forms 117 Working online 117 Providing the basic information 117 Coping with a variety of forms 119 Writing legibly 130 Asking for help 131 Witnessing the signature 131 Checking for errors 131 Practising what you’ve learnt 132 11 Writing Letters 133 Using e-mail 133 Writing a personal letter 135 Writing a formal letter 136 Ending the letter 137 Drafting your letter 137 Producing a variety of letters 140 Checking your work 146 Practising what you’ve learnt 147 12 Making Applications 148 Applying to university 148 Applying for a job 148
9. viii / I M P R O V E Y O U R W R I T T E N E N G L I S H Preparing a Curriculum Vitae (CV) 149 Filling in the application form 155 Writing a covering letter 157 Acquiring referees 157 Checking for errors 159 Practising what you’ve learnt 159 Suggested answers 161 Glossary 167 Further reading 171 Index 173
10. List of Illustrations 1 Essay plan 102 2 Title page of report 112 3 Introduction to report 112 4 Summary of report 113 5 Recommendations from report 114 6 Example of market research form 118 7 Personal details on any form 118 8 Form for opening a bank account 120 9 Form for opening a mortgage account 121 10 Standing order form 122 11 Patient registration form 123 12 Application for a department store charge card 124 13 Department store wedding gift list 124 14 Car insurance form 126 15 Handwritten personal letter 134 16 Formal letter 138 17 Addressed envelope 140 18 Handwritten letter of sympathy 141 19 Letter requesting a photograph 143 20 Handwritten letter to a local newspaper 144 21 Letter of complaint 145 22 CV: personal details 150 23 CV: career history 153 24 Example of a CV 154 25 Application form 156 26 Covering letter 158
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12. Preface to the Fifth Edition Do you have trouble with punctuation? Are you always using commas instead of full stops? Is your spelling weak? Do you have difficulty filling in forms and writing letters? Then this book will help you improve the standard of your written English. It has been written in an easy-to- understand way designed for use by anyone. Whether you are a student, school-leaver, foreign student, an employed or self-employed worker or someone at home, it should prove a valuable reference book. The format is easy to follow with plenty of examples. At the end of each section there are exercises. Suggested answers are at the back of the book. Part 1 deals with the basic rules of grammar and punctuation identifying the various punctuation marks and showing how each is used. It also covers the parts of speech and demonstrates their uses. Part 2 shows you how to put Part 1 into practice. There are sections on essay writing, summaris- ing, writing reports and even plotting a short story. There are also chapters on letter writing, filling in forms, writing a CV and applying for a job. The use of e-mail has also been xi
13. xii / I M P R O V E Y O U R W R I T T E N E N G L I S H Written in a simple style with frequent headings and easily identifiable revision points, this book should prove in- valuable for anyone who needs help in improving his or her written English. Marion Field
14. Part One: The Basics
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16. 1 Discovering Grammar IDENTIFYING NOUNS Nouns are the names of things, places or people. There are four types of noun: concrete, proper, collective and abstract. Looking at concrete or common nouns A concrete noun is a physical thing – usually something you can see or touch: apple key queen umbrella cat lake ranch volunteer diary needle soldier watch garage orange tin zoo Using proper nouns A proper noun always begins with a capital letter. It is the name of a person, a place or an institution: Alistair Ben Nevis Buckingham Palace Bob England The British Museum Christopher Guildford Hampton Court Dale River Thames The Royal Navy Discovering collective nouns A collective noun refers to a group of objects, animals or people. It is a singular word but most collective nouns can be made plural. Here are a few examples: 3
17. 4 / PART ONE: THE BASICS singular plural choir choirs flock flocks herd herds orchestra orchestras team teams Introducing abstract nouns An abstract noun cannot be seen or touched. It can be a feeling, a state of mind, a quality, an idea, an occasion or a particular time. Here are some examples: anger month peace beauty night pregnancy darkness health summer happiness patience war Sometimes abstract nouns can be formed from adjectives by adding the suffix ‘-ness’. There will be more about adjectives in the next chapter. adjectives abstract nouns bright brightness dark darkness kind kindness ill illness sad sadness ugly ugliness Other abstract nouns are formed differently. Look at the following examples: adjectives abstract nouns high height
18. DISCOVERING GRAMMAR / 5 patient patience pleasant pleasure wide width wonderful wonder USING CAPITAL LETTERS Proper nouns and adjectives formed from proper nouns al- ways start with a capital letter. So do the days of the week and the months of the year. proper nouns adjectives America American Austria Austrian Belgium Belgian England English France French Portugal Portuguese Writing titles Capital letters are also used for the titles of people, books, plays, films, magazines: Mrs Brown Princess Anne The Secret Garden A Tale of Two Cities A Midsummer Night’s Dream The Cocktail Party My Fair Lady Hamlet Identifying buildings and institutions Buildings and institutions start with capital letters: Bristol University British Museum Conservative Party Guildford Cathedral National Gallery Surrey County Council
19. 6 / PART ONE: THE BASICS Looking at religious words The names of religions and their members also start with Christianity Christian Hinduism Hindu Islam Moslem/Muslim Judaism Jew Sacred books start with a capital: Bible Koran Torah Religious festivals are also written with a capital: Christmas Easter Eid Hanukka Ramadan Deciding on subject and object The main noun or pronoun in the sentence is the subject of the sentence. It performs the action. All sentences must contain a subject: Fiona was very tired. (The subject of the sentence is Fiona.) If there is an object in the sentence, that is also a noun or pronoun. It is usually near the end of the sentence. It has something done to it. A sentence does not have to contain an The footballer kicked the ball into the net. (The object of the sentence is ball.)
20. DISCOVERING GRAMMAR / 7 REPLACING NOUNS WITH PRONOUNS To avoid the frequent use of the same noun, pronouns can be used instead. Using personal pronouns Personal pronouns take the place of a noun. They are identi- fied as 1st, 2nd and 3rd persons. They can be used as both subject and object. Look at the following table: singular plural subject object subject object 1st person I me we us 2nd person you you you you 3rd person he, she, him, her, they them it it It was sunny yesterday. (The subject of the sentence is it.) His mother scolded him. (The object of the sentence is him.) Notice that the 2nd person is the same in both the singular and plural. In the past ‘thou’ was used as the singular but today ‘you’ is in general use for both although ‘thou’ may be heard occasionally in some parts of the country. Putting pronouns to work I was born in Yorkshire but spent most of my teenage years in Sussex. In the above sentence the 1st ‘person’ is used because the writer is telling his or her own story. An author writes an ‘autobiography’ when writing about his or her own life.
21. 8 / PART ONE: THE BASICS Ellen Terry was born in 1847 and became a very famous actress. She acted in many of Shakespeare’s plays. This is written in the 3rd person. Someone else is writing about Ellen Terry. She is not telling her own story so the personal pronoun used in the second sentence is ‘she’. A book written about Ellen Terry by someone else is called a Writing novels Novels (books that are fiction although sometimes based on fact) can be written in either the 1st person where the main character is telling the story, or the 3rd person where the author tells a story about a set of characters. Using the 2nd person The only books written in the 2nd person are instruction books. These include recipe books and ‘how to’ books: Take two chicken breasts and, using a little fat, brown them in the frying pan, turning them frequently. Mix the sauce in a saucepan and gently heat it through. When it simmers, pour it over the chicken. The ‘you’ in the recipe is ‘understood’. ‘You’ (the 2nd person) are being told what to do. All instruction books, therefore, are written in the 2nd person. Using possessive pronouns Possessive pronouns are related to personal pronouns and indicate that something ‘belongs’. They replace nouns. They are identified in the following table:
22. DISCOVERING GRAMMAR / 9 singular plural personal possessive personal possessive 1st person I mine we ours 2nd person you yours you yours 3rd person he, she, his, hers, they theirs it its Using demonstrative pronouns Nouns can also be replaced with demonstrative pronouns. These are: singular plural this these that those This is interesting. That is not right. These are expensive. Those look delicious. Using interrogative pronouns Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. They are used at the start of a question as in the following examples: Which do you wish to take? Who is moving into that house? Whose is that pencil? Remember that there must be a question mark at the end.
23. 10 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S KNOWING THE ARTICLES There are three articles. They are usually placed before nouns and they are : the, a, an. ‘The’ is the definite article. This is placed before a specific The team cheered its opponents. ‘A’ and ‘an’ are indefinite articles and are used more gener- ally. ‘An’ is always used before a vowel: He brought a computer. There was an epidemic of smallpox in the eighteenth century. UNDERSTANDING VERBS A verb is a ‘doing’ or ‘being’ word. The ‘doing’ verbs are easy to identify: to write, to play, to dance, to work, etc. Looking at the verb ‘to be’ There is one ‘being’ verb. The present and past tenses of the verb ‘to be’ are shown below. present past 1st person I am I was we are we were 2nd person you are you were 3rd person he, she, it is he, she, it was they are they were
24. D I S C O V E R I N G G R A M M A R / 11 Identifying finite verbs Finite verbs must show tense. They can be past, present or future and are always connected to a noun or pronoun. Look at the following examples: Yesterday she was very unhappy. (past tense) He plays the piano very well. (present tense) Tomorrow I will go to London. (future tense) A finite verb can consist of more than one word. Each sentence must contain at least one finite verb. Looking at transitive and intransitive verbs Transitive verbs are those which take an object: He trimmed the hedge. ‘Hedge’ is the object so the verb is transitive. Intransitive verbs do not take an object: She dances beautifully. There is no object so the verb is intransitive. Some verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively. He wrote a letter. (transitive: ‘letter’ is the object) She writes exquisitely. (intransitive: there is no object)
25. 12 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S Identifying non-finite verbs The non-finite verbs are the infinitive, the present participle and the past participle. The infinitive The infinitive is the form of the verb that has ‘to’ before it: To run, to dance, to write, to publish, to dine. If an infinitive is used in a sentence, there must be a finite verb as well. The infinitive cannot stand alone. Look at the To run in the London Marathon. This is not a sentence because it contains only the infinitive. There is no finite verb. Here is the corrected version. He decided to run in the London Marathon. This is a sentence because it contains ‘decided’, a finite verb. This has a ‘person’ connected to it and is in the past tense. Many people consider it incorrect to ‘split’ an infinitive. This is when a word is placed between the ‘to’ and the verb: It is difficult to accurately assess the data. The following example is better. The infinitive has not been ‘split’ by the word ‘accurately’: It is difficult to assess the data accurately.
26. D I S C O V E R I N G G R A M M A R / 13 Using the present participle The present participle always ends in ‘-ing’. To form a finite verb, introduce it by using the auxilary verb ‘to be’. The past or present tense of this verb is used and the finite verb becomes the present progressive or past progressive tense. Remember that a finite verb can consist of more than one Ian is helping his mother. (present progressive tense) I am writing a letter. (present progressive tense) Julie was doing her homework. (past progressive tense) They were watching the cricket. (past progressive tense) Recognising the gerund The present participle can also be used as a noun and in this case it is called a gerund: Shopping is fun. The wailing was continuous. Using the past participle The past participle is used with the auxiliary verb ‘to have’; it then forms a finite verb. Either the present or the past tense of the verb ‘to have’ can be used. It will depend on the context. Look at the following examples. The past participles are underlined. She had scratched her arm. He had passed his examination.
27. 14 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S Ken has cooked the dinner. Chris has written a letter to his mother. The first three participles in the examples above are the same as the ordinary past tense but ‘has’ or ‘had’ have been added. These are regular verbs and the past participle ends in ‘-ed’. In the last example ‘written’ is different and can only be used with the verb ‘to have’. A number of verbs are irregular, including the following: infinitive past tense past participle to be was/were been to break broke broken to build built built to do did done to drink drank drunk to drive drove driven to fall fell fallen to feel felt felt to fling flung flung to fly flew flown to leap leapt leapt to run ran run to sleep slept slept to swim swam swum to tear tore torn to win won won to write wrote written When the verb ‘to have’ is added to the past participle, the finite verb is either the present perfect or the past perfect tense. This depends on which tense of the verb ‘to have’ has been used.
28. D I S C O V E R I N G G R A M M A R / 15 present perfect past perfect I have torn my skirt He had won the race She has swum twenty lengths We had promised to visit him. They have danced all night. They had built a new house. Using the perfect progressive tenses A continuous action is indicated by the use of the perfect progressive tenses. In this case the past participle of the verb ‘to be’ follows the verb ‘to have’ which in turn is followed by the present participle of the required verb. The finite verb then consists of three words. Present perfect progressive That dog has been barking all night. She has been crying all day. Past perfect progressive He had been playing football She had been working on the computer. Making mistakes The present and past participles are often confused. The present participle is always used with the verb ‘to be’. The past participle is used with the verb ‘to have’. The following sentences are wrong: I was sat in the front row. He was stood behind me. The first suggests that someone picked you up and placed
29. 16 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S you in the front row! The second one also suggests that ‘he’ was moved by someone else. The following are the correct I was sitting in the front row. I had sat in the front row. He was standing behind me. He had stood behind me. The present participle is used with the verb ‘to be’. The past participle is used with the verb ‘to have’. Making sense of sentences Look at the following examples: To write to his mother. (infinitive) Running for a train. (present participle) Swum across the river. (past participle) These are not sentences as they contain only non-finite verbs. They have no subject and no tense. The following are sentences because they contain finite verbs:
30. D I S C O V E R I N G G R A M M A R / 17 He intends to write to his mother. She is running for a train. They have swum across the river. REVISING THE POINTS ◆ Each sentence must contain at least one finite verb. ◆ The finite verb must be linked to the noun or pronoun which is the subject of the sentence. ◆ The present participle can be connected to the verb ‘to be’ to make a finite verb. ◆ The past participle can be connected to the verb ‘to have’ to make a finite verb. ◆ Nouns can be replaced by pronouns. ◆ An autobiography is written in the 1st person because the author is telling his or her own story. ◆ A biography is written in the 3rd person. It is the story of someone’s life told by another person. ◆ A novel can be written in either the 1st or 3rd person. ◆ An instruction manual always uses the ‘understood’ 2nd person as it gives instructions to the reader. PRACTISING WHAT YOU’VE LEARNT 1. Complete the following sentences: (a) The harassed housewife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (b) Sarah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31. 18 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S (c) Queen Victoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . won the race (e) His cousin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (f) He . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to play tennis. (g) The telephone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (h) He . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the computer. (i) The castle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a ruin. (j) The dog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . John. 2. In the following passage replace the nouns, if necessary, with pronouns: Sarah was working in her office. Sarah looked out of the window and saw the window cleaner. The windows were very dirty. The windows needed cleaning. Sarah asked the window cleaner if he had rung the front door bell. The window cleaner asked if Sarah wanted her windows cleaned. Sarah said she did want the windows cleaned. The window cleaner said the garden gate was unlocked. Sarah was sure she had locked the garden gate. When the window cleaner rang the door bell for the second time, Sarah heard the door bell. See page 161 for suggested answers.
32. 2 Expanding Your Knowledge MAKING WORDS ‘AGREE’ As well as the pronouns in the previous chapter there are a number of other pronouns. Because some of these are singular and some are plural, the verb is often incorrectly used with singular pronouns. Look at the following examples: Each of you have been given a pencil. Each of you has been given a pencil. The second example is correct. ‘Each’ is a singular pronoun and therefore ‘has’ should be used as it refers to one person or thing. Look at the following examples: She (one person) has a pencil. (singular) They (several people) have been given pencils. (plural) Some other pronouns which are singular and should always be followed by the singular form of the verbs are: everyone, nobody, anything, something: Everyone comes to the match. 19
33. 20 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S Nobody likes her. Anything is better than that. Something has fallen off the desk. Mistakes are often made with the pronoun ‘everyone’, which is singular: Everyone has their own books. This is incorrect. Everyone is singular. ‘Their’ and ‘books’ are plural so ‘his’ or ‘her’ and ‘book’ should be used. Follow- ing is the correct version. Everyone has his or her own book. Singular pronouns must always agree with the rest of the sentence. Collective nouns, like singular pronouns, must always be followed by the singular form of the verb. Look at the following common mistakes: The Government are planning a new divorce Bill. This is incorrect. ‘Government’ is a singular noun. There is one Government. The correct version is: The Government is planning a new divorce Bill. Most collective nouns can, of course, be made plural by adding an ‘s’. They are then followed by the plural form of the verb.
34. E X P A N D I N G Y O U R K N O W L E D G E / 21 The Governments of France and England are both democratic. INTRODUCING CLAUSES A clause is the section of the sentence containing a noun or pronoun and one finite verb. You can have more than one clause in a sentence but they must be linked correctly. Making use of conjunctions (connectives) Conjunctions or connectives are words that link two parts of the sentence together. If there is more than one finite verb in a sentence, a conjunction is usually necessary to link the clauses. Look at the following example: She was late for work she missed the train. The above sentence is incorrect as there are two finite verbs – ‘was’ and ‘missed’ – and no punctuation mark or con- junction. A full stop or a semi-colon could be placed after She missed the train. She was late for work. She missed the train; she was late for work. However, the example could be made into one sentence by the use of a conjunction. This would make a better
35. 22 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S She missed the train so she was late for work. She was late for work because she missed the train. Both ‘so’ and ‘because’ are conjunctions and link together the two sections of the sentence. Other conjunctions are: although, when, if, while, as, before, unless, where, after, since, whether, that, or. Linking clauses If there is only one clause in a sentence, it is a main clause. The clauses can be linked together by using conjunctions which can be placed between them as in the previous examples or they can be put at the beginning of a sentence. Because she missed the train, she was late for work. Notice that there is a comma after the first clause. If a sentence starts with a conjunction it must be followed by two clauses and there should be a comma between them. The clause that is introduced by the conjunction is a dependent clause because it ‘depends’ on the main clause. Although he had been unsuccessful, he was not discouraged. He was not discouraged although he had been unsuccessful.
36. E X P A N D I N G Y O U R K N O W L E D G E / 23 When her daughter came to stay, she put flowers in the spare room. She put flowers in the spare room when her daughter came to stay. Look at the following: This is the coat that I prefer. When ‘that’ is used in this way, it can sometimes be omitted without damaging the sentence: This is the coat I prefer. ‘That’ is ‘understood’ and does not need to be included. Using ‘and’, ‘but’ and ‘or’ ‘And’, ‘but’ and ‘or’ are also conjunctions but they should not usually be used to start a sentence. Their place is between clauses and they join together main clauses: I waited for two hours but she did not come. He sat at the computer and wrote his article. ‘And’ can be used at the end of a list of main clauses. The radio was on, the baby was banging her spoon on the table, Peter was stamping on the floor and Susan was throwing pieces of paper out of the window.
37. 24 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S Each main clause is separated from the next by a comma; ‘and’ precedes the last clause. ‘Or’ can also be used between two clauses. For your birthday, you may have a party or you can visit Alton Towers. Commas may be used to separate main clauses provided the last clause is preceded by ‘and’. Joining clauses with relative pronouns Relative pronouns have a similar function to conjunctions. They link dependent clauses to main clauses and usually follow a noun. They are the same words as the interrogative The house, which had once been beautiful, was now a ruin. ‘Which’ is a relative pronoun, because it and the dependent clause both follow the subject of the sentence (the house). It is placed in the middle of the main clause and commas are used to separate it. The main clause is: ‘The house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . was now a ruin’. The dependent cause is ‘. . . . . . . . . had once been beautiful . . . . . .’. Other relative pronouns are: who, whose, whom, which, that. ‘That’ can be either a conjunction or a relative pronoun. It depends on how it is used.
38. E X P A N D I N G Y O U R K N O W L E D G E / 25 The man, who had been bitten by a dog, became very ill. The boy, whose bike had been stolen, cried. The player, whom I supported, lost the match. HANDLING PHRASES A phrase is a group of words that does not contain a finite Leaping off the bus. This is a phrase as ‘leaping’ is the present participle. There is no subject or tense. Leaping off the bus, Sheila rushed across the road. ‘Sheila rushed across the road’ is the main clause and it could stand alone but it has been introduced by ‘leaping off the bus’ which is a phrase. When a phrase starts the sentence, it is followed by a comma as in the example. Phrases add information that is not essential to the sense of the sentence. Mr Ransome, the retiring headmaster, made a stirring speech at his farewell dinner. Mr Ransome is described by the phrase ‘the retiring head- master’ but it is not essential for the sense of the sentence. COLOURING YOUR WRITING You now have the basic ‘tools’ with which to write a variety
39. 26 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S of sentences. Some types of writing only require the ‘basics’. However, other writing needs to be more colourful. You will need to evoke atmosphere, describe vividly and paint a picture with words. Utilising adjectives Adjectives are words that describe nouns. They add colour and flesh to your sentence. They must always be related to a He bit into the juicy apple. ‘Juicy’ is an adjective which describes the noun ‘apple’. It makes the sentence more vivid. If there is a list of adjectives before a noun, separate them with a comma: You are the most rude, unkind, objectionable person I have ever met. If the list of adjectives is at the end of the clause, the last one will be preceded by ‘and’: She was elegant, poised, self-confident and beautiful. Using the participles Both the present and the past participles can be used as The crying child ran to its mother. (present participle)
40. E X P A N D I N G Y O U R K N O W L E D G E / 27 The howling dog kept the family awake. (present participle) The broken doll lay on the floor. (past participle) The wounded soldier died in hospital. (past participle) Make sure that you use the correct participle. The present is used when the subject is doing the action. The past is used when something has been done to the noun. Look at the The bullied schoolboy appeared on television. (past participle) In the above sentence the schoolboy has been bullied. In the following sentence he is the one doing the bullying. The bullying schoolboy appeared on television. Adjectives are used to enhance nouns. EMPLOYING ADVERBS Adverbs describe or modify verbs. They are often formed by adding ‘. . . ly’ to an adjective: She dances beautifully. He hastily wrote the letter.
41. 28 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S Adverbs can also be used to modify or help other adverbs: The doctor arrived very promptly. ‘Very’ is an adverb modifying the adverb ‘promptly’. They can also modify adjectives: The patient is much better today. ‘Much’ is an adverb modifying the adjective ‘better’. Other adverbs are: too, more and however. USING PREPOSITIONS A preposition is a word that ‘governs’ a noun or pronoun and usually comes before it. It indicates the relation of the noun or pronoun to another word. In the following examples the prepositions are underlined. Notice they are all followed by a noun or pronoun. I knew she was at home. She ran across the road. The clouds were massing in the sky. Her book was under the table. He told me about it. There has been a tradition that a preposition should be not
42. E X P A N D I N G Y O U R K N O W L E D G E / 29 be placed at the end of clause or sentence but should always precede the noun or pronoun which it governs. Who are you talking to? should therefore be: To whom are you talking? ‘To’ is the preposition and ‘whom’ is a relative pronoun. However, as the second example sounds very pompous, this ‘rule’ is often ignored. Some other prepositions are: from, above, with, by, of, on, after, for, in, between. REVISING THE POINTS ◆ Conjunctions or connectives are words that link clauses together. ◆ If a sentence begins with a conjunction, there must be two clauses following it and they must be separated by a comma. ◆ Sentences should not start with ‘and’ or ‘but’. ◆ Relative pronouns are used to introduce a dependent clause in the middle of a main clause. ◆ A phrase is a group of words that does not make sense on its own. ◆ Phrases add extra information to the sentence.
43. 30 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S ◆ Adjectives describe nouns and add colour to your writing. ◆ They can be used singly or in a list. ◆ They can precede the noun or be placed after the verb, ‘to be’. ◆ Present and past participles can be used as adjectives. ◆ Adverbs modify or help verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. ◆ When modifying a verb, they usually end in ‘. . . ly’. ◆ Prepositions ‘govern’ nouns or pronouns. PRACTISING WHAT YOU’VE LEARNT 1. Correct the following sentences: (a) The Government are preparing to discuss the new divorce Bill. (b) That class are very noisy today. (c) Everyone had done their work. (d) The crowd were enthusiastic. 2. Add appropriate conjunctions or relative pronouns to the following passage and set it out in paragraphs. . . . it was so cold, Judith decided to play tennis at the club. Then she discovered . . . her tennis racquet, . . . was very old, had a broken string. . . . there was no time to have it mended, she knew she would not be able to play . . . she angrily threw the racquet across the room. It knocked over a china figurine . . . broke in half. She
44. E X P A N D I N G Y O U R K N O W L E D G E / 31 started to cry. . . . the telephone rang, she rushed to answer it . . . it was a wrong number. She picked up the broken ornament. . . . she found some superglue, would she be able to mend it? . . . she broke it, she’d forgotten how much she liked it. . . . she had nothing better to do, she decided to go to the town to buy some glue. . . . she was shopping, she met Dave . . . invited her to a party that evening. She was thrilled . . . she had been feeling very depressed. 3. Add suitable phrases to complete the following sentences: (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , he hurtled into the room. (b) He broke his leg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (c) Mr Samson, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , walked on to the stage. (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , she thought about the events of the day. (e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , the child giggled. See pages 161–2 for suggested answers.
45. 3 Polishing Up Your Punctuation KNOWING WHEN TO STOP Writing it incorrectly My name is Marion Field I’m a freelance writer and I write articles for various magazines I live near several motorways so I can easily drive around the country to do my research the airport is also near me I love travelling and I’ve visited many different parts of the world this gives me the opportunity to write travel articles I enjoy taking photographs. There are no full stops in the above passage so it would be very difficult to read. Without full stops, writing would make little sense. Writing it correctly The correct version with full stops follows. My name is Marion Field. I’m a freelance writer and I write articles for various magazines. I live near several motorways so I can easily drive around the country to 32
46. P O L I S H I N G U P Y O U R P U N C T U A T I O N / 33 do my research. The airport is also near me. I love travelling and I’ve visited many different parts of the world. This gives me the opportunity to write travel articles. I enjoy taking photographs. Because the passage has now been broken up into sentences, it makes sense. Each statement is complete in itself and the full stop separates it from the next one. USING COMMAS CORRECTLY Beware of using commas instead of full stops. Look at the following: She entered the library, it was crowded with people, she didn’t know any of them and she wished she’d stayed at home, she felt so lonely. Here is the corrected version: She entered the library. It was crowded with people. She didn’t know any of them and she wished she’d stayed at home. She felt so lonely. Commas have a particular role to play but they can never take the place of full stops. Full stops are used to separate sentences, each of which should make complete sense on its own. Each one must be constructed properly and end with a full stop.
47. 34 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S Breaking up a list Commas can be used to separate items in a list. In this case the last item must be preceded by ‘and’: Johnny played hockey, soccer, rugby, lacrosse and tennis. Johnny played hockey, soccer, rugby, lacrosse, tennis. Commas can be used to separate a list of main clauses. The last one must also be preceded by ‘and’. Kit was listening to her Walkman, David was trying to do his homework, Mum was feeding the baby and Dad was reading the paper. If the ‘and’ had been missed out and a comma used instead after ‘baby’, it would have been wrong. Here is the incorrect Kit was listening to her Walkman, David was trying to do his homework, Mum was feeding the baby, Dad was reading the paper. Look at the following example: The sea was calm, the sun was shining, the beach was empty, Anne felt at peace with the world. This is wrong because there is a comma after ‘empty’ instead of ‘and’. Here is the correct version.
48. P O L I S H I N G U P Y O U R P U N C T U A T I O N / 35 The sea was calm, the sun was shining, the beach was empty and Anne felt at peace with the world. Beginning a sentence with a conjunction If you begin a sentence with a conjunction, use a comma to separate the dependent clause from the main. In the pre- vious sentence ‘if’ is a conjunction and there is a comma after ‘conjunction’. Here are two more examples with the conjunctions under- lined. Notice where the comma is placed: Because it was raining, we stayed inside. As the sun set, the sky glowed red. There must be two clauses following a conjunction at the beginning of the sentence. Separating groups of words Commas are also used to separate groups of words which are in the middle of the main sentence as in the following Clive, who had just changed schools, found it difficult to adjust to his new surroundings. ‘Clive’ is the subject of the sentence and ‘who had just changed schools’ says a little more about him so therefore it is enclosed by commas. It is a dependent clause.
49. 36 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S If commas are missed out, the sense of the sentence is some- times lost or it has to be read twice. Sometimes the meaning can be changed by the placing of the comma. Look at the As mentioned first impressions can be misleading. The positioning of the comma could change the meaning: As mentioned, first impressions can be misleading. As mentioned first, impressions can be misleading. Using commas before questions Here is another example of the use of a comma: I don’t like her dress, do you? A comma is always used before expressions like ‘do you?’, ‘don’t you?’, ‘isn’t it?’, ‘won’t you?’ These are usually used in dialogue. There will be more about this in the next ‘You will come to the play, won’t you?’ ‘I’d love to. It’s by Alan Ayckbourn, isn’t it?’ Using commas before names A comma should also be used when addressing a person by name. This would also be used in dialogue: ‘Do be quiet, Sarah.’ ‘John, where are you?’
50. P O L I S H I N G U P Y O U R P U N C T U A T I O N / 37 Using commas in direct speech Always use a comma to separate direct speech from the rest of the sentence unless a question mark or an exclamation mark has been used. There will be more about direct speech in the next chapter. He pleaded, ‘Let’s go to McDonalds.’ ‘I can’t,’ she replied. MAKING USE OF THE SEMICOLON, THE COLON AND THE DASH Using the semicolon The semicolon is a useful punctuation mark although it is not used a great deal. It can be used when you don’t feel you need a full stop; usually the second statement follows closely on to the first one. Don’t use a capital letter after a semi- It was growing very dark; there was obviously a storm brewing. The idea of ‘a storm’ follows closely the ‘growing very dark’. A full stop is not necessary but don’t be tempted to use a comma. A semicolon can be used to separate groups of statements which follow naturally on from one another: The storm clouds gathered; the rain started to fall; the thunder rolled; the lightning flashed. A semicolon can also help to emphasise a statement:
51. 38 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S The thieves had done a good job; every drawer and cup- board had been ransacked. The strength of the second statement would have been weakened if a conjunction had been used instead of a semi- colon. Look at the altered sentence: The thieves had done a good job because every drawer and cupboard had been ransacked. A semicolon can also be used when you wish to emphasise a contrast as in the following sentence: Kate may go to the disco; you may not. ‘You may not’ stands out starkly because it stands alone. Utilising the colon A colon can be used for two purposes. It can introduce a list of statements as in the following sentence: There are three good reasons why you got lost: you had no map, it was dark and you have no sense of direction. Like the semicolon, you need no capital letter after it. It can also be used to show two statements reinforcing each Your punctuation is weak: you must learn when to use full stops.
52. P O L I S H I N G U P Y O U R P U N C T U A T I O N / 39 Using the dash A dash is used for emphasis. What is said between dashes – or after the dash if there is only one – is more emphatic than if there were no dash. If you break your sentence in the middle to make an added point, use a dash before and after it. Janice, Elaine, Maureen, Elsie – in fact all the girls – can go on the trip to London. If the added section is at the end of the sentence, only one dash is needed: This is the second time you have not done your English homework – or any of your homework. REMEMBERING THE QUESTION MARK AND EXCLAMATION MARK Using the question mark The question mark is obviously placed at the end of a question. Do remember to put it there. Students frequently miss it out through carelessness. Is it raining? You won’t go out in the rain, will you? If you are using direct speech, the question mark takes the place of the comma and is always placed inside the inverted ‘When is your interview?’ asked Lucy. ‘Are you travelling by train?’ queried John.
53. 40 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S Using the exclamation mark The exclamation mark should be used rarely or it loses its impact. It should not be used for emphasis; your choice of words should be sufficient. It is used in direct speech – again in place of a comma – when the speaker is exclaiming. There should always be an exclamation mark if the word ‘ex- claimed’ is used: ‘I don’t believe it!’ he exclaimed. However, the word ‘exclaimed’ is not always necessary. It can merely be suggested: ‘I can’t reach it!’ she cried. In this example a comma could have been used but an exclamation mark is more appropriate. The only other place where an exclamation mark can be used is where there is an element of irony in the statement. The speaker or writer comments with ‘tongue in cheek’. What is said is not literally true but is said to make a point: Jean’s Christmas card arrived a year late. It had been on a trip round the world! REVISING THE POINTS ◆ A full stop should be used to separate statements that are complete in themselves. ◆ Commas should never be used instead of full stops.
54. P O L I S H I N G U P Y O U R P U N C T U A T I O N / 41 ◆ Use commas to separate words and groups of words in a list. ◆ Use a comma to separate the clauses if you begin a sentence with a conjunction or to separate groups of words within the main sentence. ◆ Use a comma before expressions like ‘isn’t it?’ and also when addressing someone by name. ◆ Use a comma to separate direct speech from the rest of the sentence. ◆ Use semicolons to separate clauses. ◆ Don’t forget to put the question mark after a question. PRACTISING WHAT YOU’VE LEARNT Punctuate the following extracts: 1. John was furious he stormed out of the house slamming the door behind him never again would he try to help anyone he’d gone to see Peter to offer financial aid and Peter had angrily thrown his offer back in his face surely he could have shown some gratitude now he would be late for work and he had an early appointment with an important client. 2. The sun shone down from a brilliant blue sky the slight breeze ruffled the long grass the scent of roses was all around and the birds were twittering happily in the trees Emma who had been feeling sad suddenly felt more cheerful the summer had come at last hadn’t it while she
55. 42 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S wandered down the garden path she thought about the letter she’d received that morning. 3. The team those who were present lined up to meet the new manager they had had a bad season Clive hoped Brian would improve their chance of promotion at the moment the team was a disaster the goalkeeper never saw the ball until it was too late the defence players were too slow and the captain was indecisive. 4. I don’t believe it she exclaimed Why not he enquired Surely it could not be true why hadn’t she been told before it wasn’t fair why was she always the last to hear anything if she’d been the one going to New York she’d probably only have heard about it after she should have left why had Pat been offered the chance of a lifetime hadn’t she worked just as hard. See pages 162–3 for suggested answers.
56. 4 Paragraphing Your Work STRUCTURING PARAGRAPHS Look at the following example: Stark white and threatening, the letter lay on the brown door mat. I stared at it; my body became rigid. Although I hadn’t seen it for years, I’d have recognised my sister’s handwriting anywhere. Why was she writing to me now? Forcing my reluctant knees to bend, I stooped down and picked it up. Holding it as carefully as if it contained a time bomb, I carried it to the kitchen and dropped it on the table. Then, turning my back on it, I picked up the kettle with shaking hands and filled it. Hardly aware of what I was doing, I plugged it in and took a mug out of the cupboard. Still in a daze, I made the coffee and took some scalding sips. Then gingerly I picked up the envelope and slit it open. It was a wedding invitation! ‘Mr and Mrs Collins’ requested ‘the pleasure of the company of Miss Cathy Singleton at the wedding of their daughter Lydia . . .’ I dropped the card in amaze- ment. Was my niece really old enough to be married? Had my sister at last decided to bury the hatchet or had Lydia forced her to send the invitation? I couldn’t believe that I, the black sheep of the family, had actually been invited to the wedding of my estranged sister’s daughter. 43
57. 44 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S If you picked up a book and glanced at the page you’ve just read, you’d probably replace it on the shelf. Sentences have to be grouped together in paragraphs, which are indented at the beginning so the page looks more ‘reader friendly’. Deciding on a topic sentence Paragraphs can vary in length but each paragraph deals with one topic. Within the group of sentences there should usually be a topic sentence. This is the main sentence and the content is expanded in the rest of the paragraph. The positioning of the topic sentence can vary. In the follow- ing example the topic sentence, which is underlined, opens the paragraph. It introduces the letter and the following sentences are all related to it. The first paragraph is not usually indented. Stark white and threatening, the letter lay on the brown door mat. I stared at it; my body became rigid. Although I hadn’t seen it for years, I’d have recognised my sister’s handwriting anywhere. Why was she writing to me now? In the next example, which is the second paragraph of the original passage, the opening sentences build up to the final opening of the letter in the last sentence. In this case the topic sentence, underlined, comes last. The following para- graphs are all indented. Forcing my reluctant knees to bend, I stooped down and picked it up. Holding it as carefully as if it contained a time bomb, I carried it to the kitchen and dropped it on the table. Then, turning my back on it, I picked up
58. P A R A G R A P H I N G Y O U R W O R K / 45 the kettle with shaking hands and filled it. Hardly aware of what I was doing, I plugged it in and took a mug out of the cupboard. Still in a daze, I made the coffee and took some scalding sips. Then gingerly I picked up the envelope and slit it open. There follows a short paragraph with the topic sentence underlined. The brevity of the paragraph emphasises Cathy’s amazement at the wedding invitation. In the final paragraph the topic sentence is at the end as the narrator’s amaze- ment reaches a climax when she gives a reason for her It was a wedding invitation! ‘Mr and Mrs Collins’ requested ‘the pleasure of the company of Miss Cathy Singleton at the wedding of their daughter, Lydia . . . ’ I dropped the card in amazement. Was my niece really old enough to be married? Had my sister at last decided to bury the hatchet or had Lydia forced her to send the invitation? I couldn’t believe that I, the black sheep of the family, had actually been invited to the wedding of my estranged sister’s daughter. Using single sentence paragraphs Most paragraphs contain a number of sentences but it is possible to use a one-sentence paragraph for effect. Look at the following example: He heard the ominous sound of footsteps but suddenly he realised he had a chance. There was a key in the door. Swiftly he turned it in the lock before his captors could reach him. While the door handle rattled,
59. 46 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S he turned his attention to the window. There was a drainpipe nearby. Opening the window, he stretched out his hand and grasped it. Clambering over the window- sill, he started to slither down. A shout from below startled him. Losing his grip, he crashed to the ground at the feet of his enemy. In this case the single sentence of the second paragraph is dramatic and stands out from the rest of the text. SETTING OUT DIRECT SPEECH Direct speech is what a character actually says. When writing it, paragraphs are used slightly differently. You can tell at a glance how much direct speech is contained on a page because of the way in which it is set out. Look at the following passage: ‘Cathy’s accepted the invitation,’ said Ruth. ‘Oh good,’ replied her husband. ‘I hoped she would come.’ Ruth glared at him and snapped, ‘I think she’s got a cheek. When I think of all the trouble she caused, I can’t believe it.’ ‘You invited her,’ retorted Brian, looking amused. ‘Only because Lydia wanted her to come.’ Ruth flounced out of the room, slamming the door. She was furious; she had been so sure her sister would refuse the invitation.
60. P A R A G R A P H I N G Y O U R W O R K / 47 Using inverted commas Notice that the speech itself is enclosed in inverted commas and there is always a single punctuation mark before they are closed. This is usually a comma unless it is the end of a sentence when it is, of course, a full stop. If a question is asked, a question mark is used. A new paragraph is always started at the beginning of the sentence which contains the ‘Cathy’s accepted the invitation,’ said Ruth. ‘Why did you invite her?’ asked Brian. ‘I invited her because Lydia asked me to.’ Brian laughed and remarked, ‘I’m glad she’s coming. I always liked her.’ Ruth mocked, ‘You were taken in by her.’ If a question mark is used, it replaces the comma as in the second sentence. In the fourth paragraph notice that the speech does not begin the sentence and there are words before the inverted commas are open. The first word of a person’s speech always begins with a capital letter. Interrupting direct speech Sometimes a character’s speech will be interrupted by ‘she said’ or something similar and in this case a new paragraph is not started because the same person is speaking: ‘I don’t know how you can be so calm,’ she said. ‘I am very There is a full stop after ‘said’ because the first sentence had been completed. If it had not been completed, the
61. 48 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S punctuation mark would be a comma and the following speech would start with a small letter instead of a capital letter. Look at the following example: ‘I do wish,’ he sighed, ‘that you wouldn’t get so upset.’ There is a comma after ‘sighed’ and ‘that’ does not begin with a capital letter. Returning to the narrative When the speaker has finished speaking and the story or narrative is resumed, a new paragraph is started: ‘You invited her,’ retorted Brian. Ruth flounced out of the room, slamming the door. She was furious; she had been so sure her sister would refuse the invitation. Quoting correctly Inverted commas are also used to enclose quotations and She went to see the film ‘Sense and Sensibility’. ‘A stitch in time saves nine’ is a famous proverb. The expression ‘the mind’s eye’ comes from Shake- speare’s play ‘Hamlet’. Notice that the full stop has been placed outside the inverted commas when the quotation or title is at the end of the sentence as it forms part of the sentence.
62. P A R A G R A P H I N G Y O U R W O R K / 49 Avoiding confusion If a quotation or a title is used by someone who is speaking, use double inverted commas for the quotations to avoid ‘I think the proverb ‘‘Too many cooks spoil the broth’’ is quite right,’ David said crossly. ‘I wanted to see ‘‘The Little Princess’’ but the last performance was yesterday,’ Alison remarked sadly. ‘Have you seen the film ‘‘Babe’’?’ asked John. ‘No, but I’m going to see the new ‘‘Dr Who’’,’ replied Sarah. In the last two examples the titles are at the end of the speech so the quotation marks are closed first. These are followed by the punctuation mark and finally by the inverted commas which close the speech. CHANGING TO INDIRECT SPEECH Indirect speech or reported speech needs no inverted commas as the actual words are not used. Direct speech: ‘Cathy’s accepted the invitation,’ said Ruth. Indirect speech: Ruth said that Cathy had accepted the invitation. Direct speech: ‘I want to go to the town,’ she said.
63. 50 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S Indirect speech: She said that she wanted to go to the town. Notice that in both cases the conjunction ‘that’ has been used. In the second example the first person ‘I’ has been changed to the third person ‘she’. The tense has been changed from the present to the past. Indirect speech needs no inverted commas. ‘That’ is added between ‘said’ and the reporting of the speech. WRITING A PLAY When writing a play, inverted commas are not needed be- cause only speech is used. The character’s name is put at the side of the page and is followed by a colon. Stage directions for the actors are usually shown in italics or brackets: RUTH: Cathy’s accepted the invitation. BRIAN: Oh good. I hoped she would come. RUTH: (Glaring at him) I think she’s got a cheek. When I think of all the trouble she caused, I can’t believe it. BRIAN: You invited her. (Ruth flounces out of the room, slamming the door.) REVISING THE POINTS ◆ The start of a paragraph must always be indented. ◆ Paragraphs must deal with only one topic.
64. P A R A G R A P H I N G Y O U R W O R K / 51 ◆ Each paragraph should have a topic sentence whose content is expanded in the rest of the paragraph. ◆ Short paragraphs may be used for effect. ◆ Direct speech is always enclosed in inverted commas. ◆ A new paragraph always starts at the beginning of the sentence in which a character speaks. ◆ There is always a punctuation mark before the inverted commas are closed. ◆ A punctuation mark always separates the speech from the person who says it. ◆ Start a new paragraph when returning to the narrative. ◆ Use double inverted commas for quotations and titles if contained in dialogue. ◆ Inverted commas are not needed when reporting speech or writing a play. PRACTISING WHAT YOU’VE LEARNT 1. Change the following examples of direct speech into indirect speech: (a) ‘Will you come to the dance, Susan?’ asked John. (b) ‘I can’t go because I’m going to a wedding,’ replied Susan. 2. Set out the following dialogue as a play. ‘I’ve got so much to do,’ wailed Ruth. ‘The wedding’s not for ages,’ Brian reminded her.
65. 52 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S ‘But there’s the food to order, the wedding cake to make and the dresses to buy.’ She started to clear the table. Brian moved to the door. ‘I have to go to the office today. I’ll be back for dinner,’ he ‘Wait,’ Ruth called. ‘I want you to do some shopping for me. I’ve got a list somewhere.’ 3. Punctuate the following passage: where were you at ten o clock yesterday morning the policeman asked john thought for a moment and then said I was shopping where I cant remember its important john sighed and fidgeted he wished his mother would come in perhaps he should offer the policeman a cup of tea would you like a drink he asked not while im on duty the policeman replied coldly See pages 163–4 for suggested answers.
66. 5 Checking Your Spelling ESTABLISHING THE GROUND RULES English spelling is not easy to learn. There are some rules but often there are many exceptions to the rule. Some spell- ings and pronunciation appear to be illogical. It is therefore important that certain spellings are learnt. Creating words There are twenty-six letters in our alphabet. Five are vowels and the rest are consonants. The vowels are A, E, I, O, U. All words have to contain at least one vowel. (‘Y’ is considered to be a vowel in words like ‘rhythm’ and ‘psychology’). Consonants are all the other letters that are not vowels. So that a word can be pronounced easily, vowels are placed between consonants. No more than three con- sonants can be placed together. Below are two lists. The first contains words with three consecutive consonants and in the second are words with two consecutive consonants. The sets of consonants are separated by vowels: (a) Christian, chronic, school, scream, splash, through. (b) add, baggage, commander, flap, grab, occasion. Forming plurals To form a plural word an ‘s’ is usually added to a noun. But there are some exceptions. 53
67. 54 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S Changing ‘y’ to ‘i’ If a noun ends in ‘y’, and there is a consonant before it, a plural is formed by changing the ‘y’ into an ‘i’ and adding berry – berries company – companies lady – ladies nappy – nappies If the ‘y’ is preceded by another vowel, an ‘s’ only is added: covey – coveys monkey – monkeys donkey – donkeys Adding ‘es’ or ‘s’ If a noun ends in ‘o’ and a consonant precedes the ‘o’, ‘-es’ is added to form a plural: hero – heroes potato – potatoes tomato – tomatoes If there is a vowel before the ‘o’, an ‘s’ only is added: patio – patios studio – studios zoo – zoos It would be difficult to add an ‘s’ only to some words because it would be impossible to pronounce them. These are words that end in ‘ch’, ‘sh’, ‘s’, ‘x’ and ‘z’. In this case an ‘e’ has to be added before the ‘s’:
68. C H E C K I N G Y O U R S P E L L I N G / 55 brush – brushes buzz – buzzes church – churches duchess – duchesses fox – foxes Changing the form of a verb When a verb ends in ‘y’ and it is necessary to change the tense by adding other letters, the ‘y’ is changed into an ‘i’ and ‘es’ or ‘ed’ is added. He will marry her tomorrow. He was married yesterday. A dog likes to bury his bone. A dog always buries his bone. Using ‘long’ vowels and ‘short’ vowels There is often a silent ‘e’ at the end of the word if the vowel is ‘long’: bite, date, dupe, hope, late. Each of these words consists of one syllable (one unit of sound). If another syllable is added, the ‘e’ is removed: bite – biting date – dating hope – hoping
69. 56 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S If there is no ‘e’ at the end of a word, the vowel is usually bit, hop, let If a second syllable is added to these words, the consonant is usually doubled: bit – bitten hop – hopping let – letting There are, of course, some exceptions. If the ‘e’ is preceded by a ‘g’ or a ‘c’, the ‘e’ is usually retained. To remove it would produce a ‘hard’ sound instead of a ‘soft’ one: age – ageing marriage – marriageable service – serviceable Adding ‘-ly’ to adjectives When forming an adverb from an adjective, ‘ly’ (not ‘ley’) is added. If there is a ‘y’ at the end of the adjective, it must be changed to an ‘i’: adjective adverb beautiful beautifully happy happily quick quickly slow slowly If a word ends in ‘ic’, ‘-ally’ is added to it: enthusiastic – enthusiastically
70. C H E C K I N G Y O U R S P E L L I N G / 57 ‘i’ before ‘e’ except after ‘c’ This rule seems to have been made to be broken. Some words keep to it but others break it. Here are some that follow the rule. All of them are pronounced ‘ee’ – as in no ‘C’ in front after ‘C’ grief ceiling niece deceive piece receive Exceptions to this rule are: either, neighbours, vein, neither, seize, weird AVOIDING COMMON MISTAKES Because some words do not follow any rules, there are many words in the English language that are frequently misspelled. These words have to be learnt. Following is a list of the most absence abysmal acquaint acquire accept across address advertisement aggravate already alleluia ancient annual appearance archaeology arrangement auxiliary awkward because beginning believe beautiful business character carcass centre ceiling cemetery cellar chameleon choose collar committee computer condemn conscious daily deceive definitely demonstrative description desperate develop diarrhoea difference dining disappear disappoint discipline desperate dissatisfied doctor
71. 58 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S doubt eerie eight eighth embarrass empty encyclopaedia envelope exaggerate exceed except exercise excitement exhaust exhibition existence familiar February fierce first foreigner forty fortunately frightening fulfil government glamorous gradually grammar grief guard haemorrhage haemorrhoids harass height honorary humorous idea idle idol immediately independent island jewellery journey khaki knowledge label laboratory labyrinth lacquer language league leisure liaison lightning lonely lovely maintenance massacre metaphor miniature miscellaneous mischievous miserably misspell museum necessary neighbour neither niece ninth noticeable occasion occur occurred occurrence omit opportunity opposite paid paraffin parallel particularly playwright possess precede precious preparation procedure preferred privilege probably profession professor pronunciation pursue questionnaire queue receipt receive recognise restaurant rhyme rhythm said schedule science scissors secretary separate sergeant similar simile sincerely skilful spaghetti smoky strength subtle succeed surprise suppress temporary thief though tragedy tried truly unnecessary until usage usual vacuum vehicle vigorous vicious wavy Wednesday watch weird woollen womb yield
72. C H E C K I N G Y O U R S P E L L I N G / 59 Looking at homophones Some words that are pronounced in the same way are spelt differently and have different meanings. They are called homophones. Here are some examples: air gaseous substance heir successor aisle passage between seats isle land surrounded by water allowed permitted aloud audible altar table at end of church alter change bare naked bear an animal bark sound dog makes barque sailing ship covering of tree trunk bow to bend head bough branch of tree bread food made from flour bred past tense of breed by at side of something buy purchase bye a run in cricket awarded by umpire caught past tense of ‘catch’ court space enclosed by buildings cent monetary unit sent past tense of ‘send’ scent perfume check sudden stop cheque written order to bank to inspect to pay money council an administrative body counsel to give advice current water or air moving in currant dried fruit a particular direction ewe female sheep yew a tree you second person pronoun dear loved; expensive deer animal faint become unconscious feint to make a diversionary move herd a group of cattle heard past tense of ‘hear’ here in this place hear to be aware of sound hole a cavity whole something complete
73. 60 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S idle lazy idol object of worship know to have knowledge no opposite of yes passed past tense of ‘pass’ past time gone by to pass by peace freedom from war piece a portion peal a ring of bells peel rind of fruit place particular area plaice a fish poor opposite of rich pore tiny opening in skin pour tip liquid out of container quay landing place for ships key implement for locking rain water from clouds reign monarch’s rule rein lead for controlling horse sail sheet of material on sale noun from the verb a ship ‘to sell’ to travel on water sea expanse of salt water see to have sight of seam place where two pieces seem to appear to be of material are joined sew stitches made by sow to plant seeds needle and thread so indicating extent of something sole fish soul spirit underneath of foot some a particular group sum the total son male offspring sun source of light stake wooden stave steak cooked meat suite furniture sweet confectionary dessert piece of music tail end of animal tale story threw hurled through pass into one side and out of the other tire to become weary tyre rubber covering on a wheel
74. C H E C K I N G Y O U R S P E L L I N G / 61 to in direction of too as well or excessively two the number vain conceited vein vessel in body for carrying blood vane weathercock waist middle part of body waste rubbish or uncultivated land weather atmospheric conditions whether introduces an alternative Checking more homophones ‘Their’, ‘there’ and ‘they’re’ ‘Their’ is a possessive adjective. It is placed before the noun to show ownership: That is their land. ‘There’ is an adverb of place indicating where something is: There is the house on stilts. ‘They’re’ is an abbreviation of ‘they are’. The ‘a’ has been replaced with an apostrophe: They’re emigrating to Australia. ‘Were’, ‘where’ and ‘wear’ ‘Were’ is the past tense of the verb ‘to be’: They were very happy to be in England. ‘Where’ is an adverb of place: Where is your passport?
75. 62 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S ‘Wear’ is the present tense of the verb ‘to wear’: The Chelsea Pensioners wear their uniform with pride. ‘Whose’ or ‘who’s’ ‘Whose’ is a relative pronoun which is usually linked to a This is the boy whose father owns the Indian restaurant. ‘Who’s’ is an abbreviation of ‘who is’: Who’s your favourite football player? ‘Your’ and ‘you’re’ ‘Your’ is a possessive adjective and is followed by a noun. It indicates possession: Your trainers are filthy. ‘You’re’ is an abbreviation for ‘you are’: You’re not allowed to walk over that field. Exploring homonyms Some words have the same spelling but can have different meanings. This will usually depend on the context. The pronun- ciation can also change. These words are called homonyms. bow a tied ribbon or bow to incline the head (noun) part of a violin (verb) calf the fleshy part of the calf a young cow leg below the knee
76. C H E C K I N G Y O U R S P E L L I N G / 63 refuse rubbish refuse to show obstinacy (noun) (verb) row a line or an argument row to argue angrily (noun) (verb) to propel a boat using oars train a mode of transport train to instruct or teach (noun) long piece of material (verb) attached to the hem of a dress USING THE DICTIONARY Checking your spelling Use a dictionary frequently to check your spelling. Don’t guess the spelling of a word. Look it up. It is helpful to keep a list of words that you have misspelled so you can learn Looking at words A dictionary not only tells you how to spell a word. It also tells you what part of speech the word is. Sometimes the word appears more than once as it has different meanings and can be used as a different part of speech. Look at the following examples: land (noun) (a) the solid part of the earth (b) a country land (verb) (c) to go ashore or bring a plane down to the ground fast (verb) (a) abstain from eating fast (noun) (b) the act of going without food fast (adjective) (c) firmly attached fast (adverb) (d) quickly
77. 64 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S Identifying letters Letters after the word identify the part of speech: n. = noun a. = adjective adv. = adverb v. = verb The verb is often followed by ‘t’ or ‘i’: ◆ ‘v.t.’ stands for verb transitive. A transitive verb takes an object. He wrote a letter. (The object of the verb ‘wrote’ is the noun, ‘letter’.) ◆ ‘v.i.’ stands for verb intransitive. This means that the verb does not take an object. She writes beautifully. (There is no object.) Many verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively – as in the above examples. In this case the verb will be followed by v.i & t. Exploring derivations The dictionary will often give the derivation of a word. English is a rich language that owes much to other languages. Some words like ‘rendezvous’ are obviously French and have been kept in their original forms. Others like ‘galley’ have been adapted from several languages. If you have time, browse through a dictionary looking at the derivation of some of our words. It can be a fascinating and rewarding experience.
78. C H E C K I N G Y O U R S P E L L I N G / 65 MAKING USE OF THE THESAURUS A thesaurus can also be very useful. It will help you to find an alternative word (synonym) for a word that you have used too much. Words are shown alphabetically and beside each will be a list of words that could replace the word you want to lose. Of course, not all the synonyms will be suitable. It will depend on the context. Adding to your vocabulary Using a thesaurus is an excellent way of adding to your vocabulary. It is useful to keep a list of words that you have found so that you can use them again and in this way increase your knowledge. Here is a list of synonyms that could be used instead of the overworked adjective agreeable, attractive, delicious, delightful, enjoyable, pleasant, pleasing Roget’s Thesaurus This is the most famous thesaurus; it has two main sections. The second part lists words alphabetically and identifies the parts of speech. After the words are numbers. These refer to the first part where the synonyms for the different parts of speech will be given. Other thesauri There are many smaller versions including pocket ones and these can be found in most bookshops.
79. 66 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S REVISING THE POINTS ◆ Double the consonant after a short vowel sound when adding more letters. ◆ Learn commonly misspelt words. ◆ Use a dictionary to check spelling and find the meaning of words. ◆ Use a thesaurus to widen your vocabulary. PRACTISING WHAT YOU’VE LEARNT 1. What is the plural form of the following words? lady, company, monkey, tomato, boa, princess, dance 2. Add ‘-ing’ to the following words: dine, live, hit, hop, skip, write, mate, mine 3. Form adverbs from the following adjectives: happy, joyful, kind, angry, wonderful, clear, quick, careless 4. Correct the following sentences: (a) I no you are their. (b) I can sea to ships on the see. (c) Did you now there house is too be sold? (d) Hear is you’re packed lunch. (e) Their is a whole in your jacket. (f) You can go to London two. (g) The teacher kept in the hole class. (h) The violinist took a bough.
80. C H E C K I N G Y O U R S P E L L I N G / 67 (i) Because of the wind, the bow of the tree broke. (j) She past threw the crowd. (k) He through the ball. (l) Know milk was left today. 5. In the following passage fill in the missing words: . . . were no ships on the . . . that morning. She could . . . the white foam as the waves crashed on the shore. She would . . . when . . . car arrived as it would drive . . . the gate. Idly, she . . . a stone into the . . . . The . . . of the trees on the cliff . . . swaying in the wind. It was . . . cold . . . sit still. Kicking off her sandals, she noticed she had . . . holes in her socks. She had intended to . . . her new ones. Her hair ribbon had also come undone and crossly she tied it in a . . . and stood up, holding her shoes. . . . she could . . . the car. 6. What do the following letters stand for? n. v.t. v.i. a. adv. 7. Find synonyms for the underlined words in the following passage: It was a nice day so the children decided to have a picnic. They walked along the cliff path and climbed down to the beach. The waves crashed on the shore as they ate their pleasant lunch. See pages 164–5 for suggested answers.
81. 6 Looking at Apostrophes and Abbreviations SHOWING POSSESSION Apostrophes are put at the end of nouns when the nouns have something belonging to them. Making singular nouns possessive If a noun is singular and it has something belonging to it, add an apostrophe and an ‘s’. For singular words that show possession the apostrophe is always placed before the ‘s’ which has been added: Karen’s handbag was stolen. Her neighbour’s fence was blown down. The child’s ball bounced over the wall. If the singular noun already ends in an ‘s’, another ‘s’ should still be added: The princess’s bridal gown was made by a well-known couturier. The thief stole the duchess’s jewels. 68
82. L O O K I N G A T A P O S T R O P H E S A N D A B B R E V I A T I O N S / 69 However, in some cases the extra ‘s’ can be omitted as in the following examples: James’ book was missing. He damaged his Achilles’ tendon. Making plural nouns possessive Most nouns add an ‘s’ to make a plural. In this case the apostrophe goes after the ‘s’ if it is possessive: The thundering of the horses’ hooves broke the silence. The ladies’ gowns were beautiful. Some nouns do not add an ‘s’ to become a plural. In this case, if they are possessive, they are treated like singular nouns. The apostrophe is added after the word and an ‘s’ is then added. Some of these words are: children, feet, geese, men, mice, sheep, teeth, women. The children’s playground was vandalised. Kate watched the mice’s tails disappearing round the corner. The men’s club room was being redecorated. The sale of women’s coats was postponed. Using possessive pronouns When using the possessive form of a pronoun, apostrophes are not used when there is an ‘s’ at the end. The possessive pronouns are: mine, hers, his, its, ours, yours and theirs.
83. 70 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S The blame is mine. These books are hers. (no apostrophe) The first prize was his. (no apostrophe) Theirs was the glory. (no apostrophe) The success was ours. (no apostrophe) That house is theirs. (no apostrophe) Note especially The cat cleaned its whiskers (no apostrophe). not The cat cleaned it’s whiskers. ◆ ‘Its’ possessive does not use an apostrophe. ◆ ‘It’s’ is used only when letters are omitted. ◆ ‘It’s’ means ‘it is’ or ‘it has’. ABBREVIATING WORDS When writing formally, it is better not to abbreviate. Write the words out in full. However, it is, of course, acceptable to abbreviate when writing dialogue. An abbreviation is when letters are missed out. Sometimes two words are combined into one. An apostrophe is placed where the letter or letters have been omitted: ‘cannot’ becomes ‘can’t’
84. L O O K I N G A T A P O S T R O P H E S A N D A B B R E V I A T I O N S / 71 ‘Do not’ becomes ‘don’t’ ‘Would not’ becomes ‘wouldn’t’ Note especially ‘Could have’ becomes ‘could’ve’. not ‘could of’ ‘Might have’ becomes ‘might’ve’. not ‘might of’ ‘Would have’ becomes ‘would’ve’. not ‘would of’ Because of the way the abbreviation sounds, the use of the word ‘of’ instead of the abbreviation ‘’ve’ is common. The abbreviation of ‘have’ is ‘’ve’ not ‘of’. Shortening words When words are shortened, it is usual to put a full stop at the abbreviation abbr. adjective adj. document doc. etcetera etc. information info. language lang. The names of counties are shortened in the following way and all need full stops after them: Berkshire Berks. Gloucestershire Glos. Hampshire Hants.
85. 72 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S Nottinghamshire Notts. Oxfordshire Oxon. Other words that are often abbreviated are titles but some of these should only be abbreviated if the title is followed by the person’s full name. A full stop should be put after the abbreviation if it is used. Capt. Edward Symes not Capt. Symes Rev. Steven Reynolds not Rev. Reynolds HANDLING CONTRACTIONS Some words are abbreviated by using the first and last letters only. These are contractions of the original word and do not usually need a full stop at the end: Doctor Dr Mister Mr Mistress Mrs Road Rd Saint St Street St No full stop is needed after a contraction.
86. L O O K I N G A T A P O S T R O P H E S A N D A B B R E V I A T I O N S / 73 USING INITIAL LETTERS It is becoming increasingly common to describe companies or organisations only by the initial letters of the name of the group. This is now so prevalent that we often forget what the original letters stood for! It is no longer considered necessary to put a full stop after each capital letter. Here are some AGM Annual General Meeting BBC British Broadcasting Corporation CPS Crown Prosecution Service GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education MP Member of Parliament MEP Member of the European Parliament RAF Royal Air Force LOOKING AT ACRONYMS Acronyms are words that are formed by the initial letters and we usually say the word rather than the letters: AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ANZAC Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ASH Action on Smoking and Health LAMDA London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art LASER Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation NASA National Aeronautic and Space Administration NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation RADA Royal Academy of Dramatic Art RADAR Radio Detection And Ranging SCUBA Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus SONAR Sound Navigation And Ranging UCAS Universities Colleges Admissions Service
87. 74 / P A R T O N E : T H E B A S I C S UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UFO Unidentified Flying Object VAT Value Added Tax REVISING THE POINTS ◆ The apostrophe is placed before the ‘s’ if the noun is singular. ◆ The apostrophe is placed after the ‘s’ if the noun is plural.XX ◆ If something ‘belongs’, add an ‘s’ and put the apostrophe before it if the plural does not end in ‘s’. ◆ Do not use an apostrophe when using a possessive pronoun. ◆ Remember ‘its’ possessive does not use an apostrophe. ◆ Put a full stop after shortened or abbreviated words. ◆ Do not put a full stop after contractions, in acronyms or when the initial letters only have been used. PRACTISING WHAT YOU’VE LEARNT 1. Put apostrophes in the following passage: Carefully he picked up Johns bundle. It wasnt very heavy. He glanced warily at the caves entrance. It was very dark. The picnic baskets still lay where theyd been thrown. He stepped into the cave and almost fell over a pile of little rubber tubes that looked like mices tails.
88. L O O K I N G A T A P O S T R O P H E S A N D A B B R E V I A T I O N S / 75 Inside there was a boulder of rock. Its smooth surface glistened like gold. Johns hands shook. He wished hed stayed with his brothers. His parents quarrel had upset him and that was why hed run away. In a weeks time they were going on holiday. He wished now that hed stayed at home as hed been told. 2. Correct the following passage where necessary: The foll doc from Mrs Barker gives info about the lectures to be given by Prof Peter Coombs in Sept and Oct in St Margaret’s Church Hall. The Hall is in Church Rd and is situated near the station. Prof Peter Coombs will be accompanied by Dr Martin. See pages 165–6 for suggested answers.
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